一本全面介绍燃料电池各种性能的书籍
1. Introduction.............................................................................  1
1.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cells – Basic Principles ..................................... 1
1.2 What Limits the Current? ........................................................... 5
1.3 Connecting Cells in Series – the Bipolar Plate .......................... 6
1.4 Gas Supply and Cooling ............................................................ 10
1.5 Fuel Cell Types .......................................................................... 14
1.6 Other Cells – Some Fuel Cells, Some Not ................................ 16
1.6.1 Biological Fuel Cells ...................................................... 17
1.6.2 Metal/Air Cells ................................................................ 17
1.6.3 Redox Flow Cells or Regenerative Fuel Cells ............... 18
1.7 Other Parts of a Fuel Cell System ............................................. 19
1.8 Figures Used to Compare Systems ........................................... 21
1.9 Advantages and Applications .................................................... 22
References ......................................................................................... 24
2. Efficiency and Open Circuit Voltage.....................................  25
2.1 Energy and the EMF of the Hydrogen Fuel Cell ........................ 2
2.2 The Open Circuit Voltage of Other Fuel Cells and Batteries ..... 30
2.3 Efficiency and Efficiency Limits ................................................. 31
2.4 Efficiency and the Fuel Cell Voltage .......................................... 34
2.5 The Effect of Pressure and Gas Concentration ......................... 35
2.5.1 The Nernst Equation ...................................................... 35
2.5.2 Hydrogen Partial Pressure ............................................. 38
2.5.3 Fuel and Oxidant Utilization ........................................... 39
2.5.4 System Pressure ............................................................ 40
2.5.5 An Application – Blood Alcohol Measurement ............... 41
2.6 Summary ................................................................................... 42
References ......................................................................................... 43
3. Operational Fuel Cell Voltages..............................................  45
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 45
3.2 Terminology ............................................................................... 47
3.3 Fuel Cell Irreversibilities – Causes of Voltage Drop .................. 47
3.4 Activation Losses ....................................................................... 48
3.4.1 The Tafel Equation ........................................................ 48
3.4.2 The Constants in the Tafel Equation .............................. 49
3.4.3 Reducing the Activation Overvoltage ............................. 52
3.4.4 Summary of Activation Overvoltage ............................... 53
3.5 Fuel Crossover and Internal Currents ....................................... 53
3.6 Ohmic Losses ............................................................................ 56
3.7 Mass Transport or Concentration Losses .................................. 57
3.8 Combining the Irreversibilities ................................................... 59
3.9 The Charge Double Layer ......................................................... 61
3.10 Distinguishing the Different Irreversibilities ................................ 63
References ......................................................................................... 66
4. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells................................  67
4.1 Overview .................................................................................... 67
4.2 How the Polymer Electrolyte Works .......................................... 69
4.3 Electrodes and Electrode Structure ........................................... 72
4.4 Water Management in the PEMFC ............................................ 75
4.4.1 Overview of the Problem ................................................ 75
4.4.2 Airflow and Water Evaporation ...................................... 76
4.4.3 Humidity of PEMFC Air .................................................. 80
4.4.4 Running PEM Fuel Cells without Extra Humidification .. 83
4.4.5 External Humidification – Principles ............................... 85
4.4.6 External Humidification – Methods ................................ 87
4.5 PEM Fuel Cell Cooling and Air Supply ...................................... 90
4.5.1 Cooling Using the Cathode Air Supply ........................... 90
4.5.2 Separate Reactant and Cooling Air ............................... 91
4.5.3 Water Cooling of PEM Fuel Cells .................................. 93
4.6 PEM Fuel Cell Connection – the Bipolar Plate .......................... 94
4.6.1 Introduction .................................................................... 94
4.6.2 Flow Field Patterns on the Bipolar Plates ...................... 94
4.6.3 Making Bipolar Plates for PEM Fuel Cells ..................... 96
4.6.4 Other Topologies ........................................................... 100
4.7 Operating Pressure ................................................................... 102
4.7.1 Outline of the Problem ................................................... 102
4.7.2 Simple Quantitative Cost/Benefit Analysis of Higher
Operating Pressures ...................................................... 103
4.7.3 Other Factors Affecting Choice of Pressure .................. 108
4.8 Reactant Composition ............................................................... 110
4.8.1 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning .......................................... 110
4.8.2 Methanol and Other Liquid Fuels ................................... 111
4.8.3 Using Pure Oxygen in Place of Air ................................. 111
4.9 Example Systems ...................................................................... 112
4.9.1 Small 12-W System ....................................................... 112
4.9.2 Medium 2-kW System .................................................... 114
4.9.3 205-kW Fuel Cell Engine ............................................... 117
References ......................................................................................... 118
Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cells...............................................  121
5.1 Historical Background and Overview ......................................... 121
5.1.1 Basic Principles ............................................................. 121
5.1.2 Historical Importance ..................................................... 121
5.1.3 Main Advantages ........................................................... 122
5.2 Types of Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cell ...................................... 124
5.2.1 Mobile Electrolyte .......................................................... 124
5.2.2 Static Electrolyte Alkaline Fuel Cells .............................. 127
5.2.3 Dissolved Fuel Alkaline Fuel Cells ................................. 129
5.3 Operating Pressure and Temperature ....................................... 132
5.4 Electrodes for Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cells ............................ 134
5.4.1 Introduction .................................................................... 134
5.4.2 Sintered Nickel Powder ................................................. 134
5.4.3 Raney Metals ................................................................. 135
5.4.4 Rolled Electrodes ........................................................... 135
5.5 Cell Interconnections ................................................................. 137
5.6 Problems and Development ...................................................... 137
References ......................................................................................... 138
6. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells.....................................................  141
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 141
6.2 Anode Reaction and Catalysts .................................................. 143
6.2.1 Overall DMFC Reaction ................................................. 143
6.2.2 Anode Reactions in the Alkaline DMFC ......................... 144
6.2.3 Anode Reactions in the PEM Direct Methanol FC ......... 144
6.2.4 Anode Fuel Feed ........................................................... 146
6.2.5 Anode Catalysts ............................................................. 147
6.3 Electrolyte and Fuel Crossover ................................................. 148
6.3.1 How Fuel Crossover Occurs .......................................... 148
6.3.2 Standard Techniques for Reducing Fuel Crossover ...... 149
6.3.3 Fuel Crossover Techniques in Development ................. 150
6.4 Cathode Reactions and Catalysts ............................................. 151
6.5 Methanol Production, Storage, and Safety ................................ 152
6.5.1 Methanol Production ...................................................... 152
6.5.2 Methanol Safety ............................................................. 153
6.5.3 Methanol Compared to Ethanol ..................................... 155
6.5.4 Methanol Storage .......................................................... 156
6.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Applications ...................................... 157
References ......................................................................................... 160
7. Medium and High Temperature Fuel Cells...........................  163
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 163
7.2 Common Features ..................................................................... 165
7.2.1 An Introduction to Fuel Reforming ................................. 165
7.2.2 Fuel Utilization ............................................................... 166
7.2.3 Bottoming Cycles ........................................................... 168
7.2.4 The Use of Heat Exchangers – Exergy and Pinch
Technology .................................................................... 174
7.3 The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) ..................................... 177
7.3.1 How It Works ................................................................. 177
7.3.2 Performance of the PAFC .............................................. 182
7.3.3 Recent Developments in PAFC ..................................... 184
7.4 The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) .................................. 187
7.4.1 How It Works ................................................................. 187
7.4.2 Implications of Using a Molten Carbonate Electrolyte ... 190
7.4.3 Cell Components in the MCFC ...................................... 190
7.4.4 Stack Configuration and Sealing .................................... 195
7.4.5 Internal Reforming ......................................................... 196
7.4.6 Performance of MCFCS ................................................. 198
7.4.7 Practical MCFC Systems ............................................... 202
7.5 The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell .......................................................... 207
7.5.1 How It Works ................................................................. 207
7.5.2 SOFC Components ........................................................ 209
7.5.3 Practical Design and Stacking Arrangements for the
SOFC ............................................................................. 213
7.5.4 SOFC Performance ....................................................... 220
7.5.5 SOFC Combined Cycles, Novel System Designs and
Hybrid Systems .............................................................. 221
7.5.6 Intermediate Temperature SOFCs ................................. 225
References ......................................................................................... 226
8. Fuelling Fuel Cells..................................................................  229
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 229
8.2 Fossil Fuels ............................................................................... 232
8.2.1 Petroleum ...................................................................... 232
8.2.2 Petroleum in Mixtures: Tar Sands, Oil Shales, Gas
Hydrates, and LPG ........................................................ 233
8.2.3 Coal and Coal Gases ..................................................... 234
8.2.4 Natural Gas .................................................................... 235
8.3 Bio-Fuels ................................................................................... 236
8.4 The Basics of Fuel Processing .................................................. 238
8.4.1 Fuel Cell Requirements ................................................. 238
8.4.2 Desulphurization ............................................................ 239
8.4.3 Steam Reforming ........................................................... 241
8.4.4 Carbon Formation and Pre-Reforming ........................... 244
8.4.5 Internal Reforming ......................................................... 246
8.4.6 Direct Hydrocarbon Oxidation ........................................ 248
8.4.7 Partial Oxidation and Autothermal Reforming ................ 248
8.4.8 Hydrogen Generation by Pyrolysis or Thermal
Cracking of Hydrocarbons ............................................. 250
8.4.9 Further Fuel Processing – Carbon Monoxide Removal . 250
8.5 Practical Fuel Processing – Stationary Applications .................. 252
8.5.1 Conventional Industrial Steam Reforming ..................... 252
8.5.2 System Designs for Natural Gas Fed PEMFC and
PAFC Plants with Steam Reformers .............................. 253
8.5.3 Reformer and Partial Oxidation Designs ....................... 257
8.6 Practical Fuel Processing – Mobile Applications ....................... 263
8.6.1 General Issues ............................................................... 263
8.6.2 Methanol Reforming for Vehicles ................................... 264
8.6.3 Micro-Scale Methanol Reactors ..................................... 267
8.6.4 Gasoline Reforming ....................................................... 269
8.7 Electrolysers .............................................................................. 270
8.7.1 Operation of Electrolysers ............................................. 270
8.7.2 Applications of Electrolysers .......................................... 272
8.7.3 Electrolyser Efficiency .................................................... 272
8.7.4 Generating at High Pressure ......................................... 273
8.7.5 Photo-Electrolysis .......................................................... 275
8.8 Biological Production of Hydrogen ............................................ 275
8.8.1 Introduction .................................................................... 275
8.8.2 Photosynthesis .............................................................. 276
8.8.3 Hydrogen Production by Digestion Processes ............... 278
8.9 Hydrogen Storage I – Storage as Hydrogen ............................. 279
8.9.1 Introduction to the Problem ............................................ 279
8.9.2 Safety ............................................................................. 280
8.9.3 The Storage of Hydrogen as a Compressed Gas .......... 282
8.9.4 Storage of Hydrogen as a Liquid ................................... 284
8.9.5 Reversible Metal Hydride Hydrogen Stores ................... 286
8.9.6 Carbon Nanofibres ......................................................... 289
8.9.7 Storage Methods Compared .......................................... 291
8.10 Hydrogen Storage II – Chemical Methods ................................. 293
8.10.1 Introduction .................................................................... 293
8.10.2 Methanol ........................................................................ 293
8.10.3 Alkali Metal Hydrides ..................................................... 295
8.10.4 Sodium Borohydride ...................................................... 297
8.10.5 Ammonia ........................................................................ 301
8.10.6 Storage Methods Compared .......................................... 304
References ......................................................................................... 305
9. Compressors, Turbines, Ejectors, Fans, Blowers, and
Pumps......................................................................................  309
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 309
9.2 Compressors – Types Used ...................................................... 310
9.3 Compressor Efficiency ............................................................... 312
9.4 Compressor Power .................................................................... 314
9.5 Compressor Performance Charts .............................................. 315
9.6 Performance Charts for Centrifugal Compressors ..................... 318
9.7 Compressor Selection – Practical Issues .................................. 320
9.8 Turbines ..................................................................................... 321
9.9 Turbochargers ........................................................................... 325
9.10 Ejector Circulators ..................................................................... 326
9.11 Fans and Blowers ...................................................................... 327
9.12 Membrane/Diaphragm Pumps ................................................... 328
References ......................................................................................... 330
10. Delivering Fuel Cell Power.....................................................  331
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 331
10.2 DC Regulation and Voltage Conversion .................................... 332
10.2.1 Switching Devices .......................................................... 332
10.2.2 Switching Regulators ..................................................... 334
10.3 Inverters ..................................................................................... 339
10.3.1 Single Phase .................................................................. 339
10.3.2 Three Phase .................................................................. 344
10.3.3 Regulatory Issues and Tariffs ........................................ 346
10.3.4 Power Factor Correction ................................................ 348
10.4 Electric Motors ........................................................................... 349
10.4.1 General Points ............................................................... 349
10.4.2 The Induction Motor ....................................................... 350
10.4.3 The Brushless DC Motor ................................................ 352
10.4.4 Switched Reluctance Motors ......................................... 355
10.4.5 Motors Efficiency ........................................................... 357
10.4.6 Motor Mass .................................................................... 361
10.5 Fuel Cell/Battery or Capacitor Hybrid Systems ......................... 362
References ......................................................................................... 367
11. Fuel Cell Systems Analyzed..................................................  369
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 369
11.2 Energy Systems ........................................................................ 370
11.3 Well-To-Wheels Analysis ........................................................... 371
11.3.1 Importance of Well-to-Wheels Analysis ......................... 371
11.3.2 Well-to-Tank Analysis .................................................... 372
11.3.3 Main Conclusions of the GM Well-to-Wheels Study ...... 374
11.4 Power-Train or Drive-Train Analysis .......................................... 375
11.5 Example System I – PEMFC Powered Bus ............................... 377
11.6 Example System II – Stationary Natural Gas Fuelled System ... 382
11.6.1 Introduction .................................................................... 382
11.6.2 Flow Sheet and Conceptual Systems Designs .............. 382
11.6.3 Detailed Engineering Designs ....................................... 386
11.6.4 Further Systems Analysis .............................................. 387
11.7 Closing Remarks ....................................................................... 388
References ......................................................................................... 389

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