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5Â¥2007-01-05 00:31:32
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wz9thÉÏ´«Ó¢ÎÄͼÊé×Ü»ã - ʳƷµÄÓ¢ÓïÊÀ½ç ʳƷÂÛ̳ » ʳƷµÄÓ¢ÓïÊÀ½ç » wz9thÉÏ´«Ó¢ÎÄͼÊé×Ü»ã http://bbs.foodmate.net/viewthre ... 9&fromuid=10459 What is traceability? 5. Traceability is the ability to trace the history, application or location of an entity by means of recorded information (ISO 8402:1994). 6. Traceability can be considered in four distinct contexts and in each it has a slightly different application: - for products: it creates a link between materials, their origin and processing, distribution and location after delivery. - for data: it relates the calculations and data generated through a quality loop and may link these back to the requirements for quality. - in calibration: it relates measuring equipment to national, international or primary standards, to basic physical constants or properties or to reference materials. - in IT and programming: it relates design and implementation processes back to the requirements for a system. 7. For analytical laboratories, demonstrating traceability, so that any measurement can be related to stated references, usually national or international standards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons all having stated uncertainties, is critical to laboratory accreditation e.g. to EN45001 Standards. For some measurements made on foods and feedstuffs e.g. pesticide residues, standard materials can be relatively easily obtained. However in other cases, e.g. with regard to mycotoxins, standard materials may be more difficult to define/maintain, and hence the calibration and validity of these measurements is more difficult to demonstrate by traceability. In calibration, traceability is not a meaningful end in itself but is a component of a quality assurance system for measurement. Traceability within an analytical context will not be covered further in this report. 8. Traceability of products and data are important for the consideration of advanced traceability systems relating to products and their processing and it is these concepts that we will consider in more detail in relation to the food chain in the remainder of this report. 9. Within a production chain it is possible to identify at least two levels of traceability:- Internal traceability i.e. traceability within one link or business within the chain. Internal traceability allows data about raw materials and processes within the business to be linked to the final product separately in each stage of production, processing or distribution. - Chain traceability i.e. traceability between links in the chain. The focus is on information which accompanies the product from one link in the chain to the next to extend traceability for any product through all stages of production, processing and distribution. What is traceability in the food chain? 10. In the food chain, traceability means the ability to trace and follow a food, feed, food- producing animal or substance through all stages of production and distribution. Stages of production and distribution means any stage including import, from and including the primary production of food, up to and including its sale or supply to the final consumer and, where relevant to food safety, the production, manufacture and 1 distribution of feed . 11. Many manufacturing systems, including food manufacturing, have sought registration to the ISO 9001 Quality Standards. These require that the product should be able to be traced from the current stage back through all its stages of manufacture through accurate and timely record-keeping. The requirement for paper documentation has recently been changed; computer records solely can now be used as evidence of compliance. 12. In primary production, traceability has been defined as the ability to trace the history of the product through the supply chain to or from the place and time of production, including the identification of the inputs used and production operations undertaken (British Standards Institute PAS 85:2000). Legislation has been recently introducedto ensure livestock identification and the tracking of livestock movements. Many of the farm assurance schemes require some level of traceability to be in place within primary production. |
6Â¥2007-01-06 00:20:28
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Legislation Current legislation 13. There is currently no general legal requirement for the establishment of traceability systems in the food chain. However, some limited traceability is required under a number of separate measures. 14. The British Cattle Movement Service (BCMS) an Agency of DEFRA, runs the mandatory cattle identification and registration scheme in the UK. All cattle must be registered and those born after 1 January 1998 have their movements traced from birth to death. (Further details are given in paragraphs 101-103). 15. The Compulsory Beef Labelling Scheme (CBLS) came into operation in the UK on 1 September 2000. Mandatory labelling requirements at the point of sale require the identification of both the slaughterhouse and cutting plant(s) for fresh and frozen beef, including mince and uncooked beef burger patty with no added ingredients. Additional labelling requirements (countries where born and raised) became compulsory on 1 January 2002. (Further details of the CBLS are given inparagraphs 108-112). 16. The Food Premises (Registration) Regulations, 1991 (modified by subsequent amendments) require all food businesses to be (at least) registered The Local Authority holds details of the location and business type on a register. In addition, certain premises must comply with certain structural and operating standards: including slaughterhouses, cutting plants, game handling establishments, establishments producing minced meat, meat preparations and mechanically separated meat, establishments manufacturing meat products and wholesale markets where unprocessed or processed products of animal origin are handled. These are inspected before they can open and approved/licensed by the Competent Authority. Businesses manufacturing particular feed additives and feed businesses using such additives also need to be approved or registered. Such businesses are issued an approval/registration code by the food authority. 17. A health mark is required for consignments of food of animal origin: meat, meat products, minced meat and meat preparations, wild-game meat milk and milk-based products, egg products, fish and shellfish. The Health Mark is an oval (EU),square (national) or pentagonal (wild game) stamp containing the approval number of the premises. In the case of meat and meat products this must currently be applied by the Official Veterinary Surgeon (OVS) or under their supervision. For packaged meat and offal the health mark is printed on a label which is visible to the outer surface of the package but is destroyed if the package is opened. 18. The General Product Safety Regulations (1994), which implement Directive 1992/59/EEC, impose requirements concerning the safety of products (including food and drink) intended for, or likely to be used by, consumers. This Regulation includes a requirement for systems to be in place that enable product to be withdrawn from sale, where a problem that might affect consumer safety is reported. 19. The Food Lot Marking Regulations (1996) apply to the sale of all foodstuffs for human consumption and continue to implement EC Directive 89/396/EEC, which established a common framework for a lot/batch identification system throughout the EU to facilitate tracing and identification of products through the food chain. The lot marking indication must appear in such a way as to be easily visible, clearly legibleand indelible. The producer, manufacturer, packer or first seller within the EC determines the size of any lot. Some categories of sales and sales units are exempt including agricultural products which are delivered for immediate processing or packaging, bread baked on the premises for direct sale, individual items of food which are not pre-packed when offered for sale (loose fruit, vegetables, sweets). A ¡°sell by¡± or ¡°use by¡± date on the labelling of the product may be used as a lot mark. 20. The Feeding Stuffs Regulations 2000, which implement various EC directives, place controls on the marketing of feed materials (ingredients or single feeds). These requires that a label must be attached to, or travel with, the batch of feed material. The label must contain the name and address of the person responsible for the information and other statutory information relating to composition. In addition where the feed material is part of a divided batch the label must contain a reference to the original batch. For sales of feed materials from farms, the batch is considered to enter the feed chain at the premises of the crusher, central store or feed compounder. A label is then generated when the grain is sold on, whether as astraight or as part of a compound (manufactured) feed. No label or batch reference therefore required to be generated on-farm. 21. There are also labelling requirements for compound feedingstuffs, feed additives and premixtures (mixtures of additives with a carrier) These cover provisions to include the details of the person responsible for the labelling information. 22. Other Regulations require establishments and intermediaries manufacturing or using certain feed additives (e.g. vitamins and trace elements) to be approved or registered. This includes manufacturers of compound feeds and farmers who buy-in compound feeds with additives. The Regulations specify minimum conditions that must be fulfilled including records of suppliers and customers. There are similar requirements concerning premises producing feedingstuffs containing zootechnical additives (e.g. antibiotics or growth promoters). 23. The Materials and Articles in Contact with Food Regulations 1987 also provide a basic form of traceability for finished items intended to come into contact with food, but which are not already in contact with food when sold at retail or otherwise. The regulations provide that the items shall be shown with either the name or trade name and address or registered office or the registered trademark of the manufacturer orprocessor of the item, or of a seller of the item established in the European Community. These requirements are common throughout the European Union. 24. Food sold to the final consumer or mass caterer, which contains GM material (i.e. protein or DNA from a genetically modified organism) is required to carry a label, to indicate this. UK retailers claim to have developed identity preservation systems to segregate non-GM crops (maize, soya) in the supply chain to support labelling claims such as ¡®non GM¡¯. 25. The Food Irradiation Provisions (England) Regulations 2000 require that irradiation plants keep records for each batch of food irradiated. Irradiated food has to be labelled and accompanied by documentation and/or identification that identifies the facility where it was irradiated. 26. EC Commission Regulation 2065/2001 lays down detailed rules relating to consumer information and labelling for fish and fish products sold at retail. The new rules apply from 1 January 2002, although enforcement provisions in the UK aresubject to consultation until 7 May 2002. These provisions require all chilled, frozen and smoked fish or fillets and shellfish, when offered for retail sale to the final consumer to be labelled with: the commercial designation of the species; method of production (caught at sea, in inland waters or farmed) and the catch area (e.g. Pacific) or country of production if farmed. The Regulation requires that the labelling information, as well as the scientific name of the species, is given at each stage of the marketing chain. This information can be given by labelling or on packaging, or by means of commercial documents accompanying the product. In the UK it is generally understood that commercial documentation (e.g. sales note, invoice) is the usual means of providing this information through the chain. |
7Â¥2007-01-06 00:23:06
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10Â¥2007-01-24 15:36:30
11Â¥2007-01-26 03:35:26
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21.1 Introduction: the key objectives of traceability Traceability and systems associated with the ability to link a finished food product with its ingredients and processing have always formed a key part of any good manufacturing practice and quality assurance scheme. Without such schemes in place, it would be very difficult to substantiate any on-pack marketing claims, for example `Organic'; to provide due diligence in the event of a Public Enforcement challenge or to minimise the quantities involved in the event of a recall. There has been significant growth in both global sourcing and manufacturing, along with centralisation of food production into specialist sites, in recent years. As a result, large volumes of raw materials and ingredients will be sourced from suppliers around the world and converted into equally large volumes of finished product for global distribution. In these circumstances, traceability is especially important to the manufacturer, whether international, national or regional. It is also clear that, in order to be proactive in meeting ever- increasing consumer demands for clear labelling and transparency, traceability will gain in importance. Traceability schemes will always need to go beyond any legislative requirements. This, in turn, will lead to improved process controls and good manufacturing practices (GMP). The absolute need for a fully documented traceability system within the food chain has never been stronger, building from the late 1980s through to the millennium. Two issues in particular, the BSE crisis, followed by the genetically modified organisms (GMO) debate, can best illustrate this. Initial loss of confidence of consumers in British beef arising from the BSE crisis was further exacerbated by the extended ban on all exports. This very much centred around issues of lack of adequate government-controlled cattle traceability schemes. British retailers tackled this problem for their home markets by instigating their own traceability systems and assured labelling schemes, which were heavily promoted in advertising and in-store leaflet campaigns. The Meat and Livestock Commission (MLC) also established a national traceability scheme for beef and beef products,1 which could be translated into on-pack quality claims for manufacturers and retailers participating in the scheme. While BSE was fundamentally a food safety issue, it is now widely perceived that the GMO debate is one of consumer choice, transparency and ethical labelling. Traceability is an indispensable aspect, whether to meet developing labelling legislation within the EU in this area, or to justify labelling claims of `GM-free'. In consideration of the way in which two recent problems affect the food industry, and the globalisation of manufacturing and supply, it is possible to identify some key objectives required from a traceability scheme.2 ¡¤ Compliance with international and national traceability coding legislation as appropriate. ¡¤ Development of agriculture traceability schemes for commodities and `organics' ¡À ability to make marketing claims ¡À ability to make health and other claims. ¡¤ Definition and control of ingredients ¡À comprehensive specifications ¡À ability to avoid the need for negative claims e.g. `may contain nut traces'. ¡¤ Improved process control and GMP ¡À comprehensive process control specifications ¡À comprehensive final product standards ¡À improved quality and consistency ¡À due diligence systems enhanced ¡À ability to minimise recall losses. ¡¤ Improved consumer perception ¡À transparency ¡À confidence ¡À loyalty. |
12Â¥2007-02-03 01:16:51
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Developing traceability systems across the supply chain 22.1 Introduction Traceability is now emerging as a `watch-word' for consumer and regulatory confidence with respect to food quality, food safety and the infrastructure for producing, processing and delivering food products from the point of origin to the point of sale. Various definitions have been derived for traceability, including a European Union (EU) General Food Law Regulation definition in which traceability is defined as: `the ability to trace and follow a food, feed, food-producing animal or substance through all stages of production and distribution' (EU Regulation Food Law: 8/5/01). An International Standards Organisation (ISO) definition is also to be found that defines traceability as: `the ability to trace the history, application or location of an entity by means of recorded information' (ISO 8402:1994). The ISO definition, whilst more general in terms of the traceable entity, draws attention to the importance of recorded information that is essential for satisfying traceability requirements. The need for traceability has arisen primarily from consumer and government concerns over food safety, hygiene and authenticity. These concerns range from the human risks associated with animal-borne pathogenic organisms, such as salmonella, listeria, clostridium and E-coli O157 through agents causing bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE) to those risks perceived for genetically modified (GM) vegetables, cereals, fruits and GM influenced foods in general. As a consequence of national needs and sectoral responses for traceability, sensitised by developments in global trade and consumer demands, a number of traceability guidelines have been developed. Notably these guidelines include the Traceability of Fish ¡À Application of EAN.UCC Standards (EAN International); Traceability of Beef Guidelines (EMEG); Fresh Produce Traceability Guidelines (EAN International); Traceability in the Supply Chain (GENCOD EAN France) and Traceability Implementation (EAN.UCC project). In response to initiatives such as these and to the burgeoning requirements for legislative compliance, increasing numbers of representative bodies for food sector supply chains are deriving and implementing traceability systems. With varying degrees of supply chain coverage and an emphasis on particular foodstuffs such as fish, meat and wine, such systems can satisfy some traceability requirements for these products but cannot readily be expanded to encompass other products. As an increasing number of supply chains attempt to develop sector-specific traceability systems, problems will inevitably occur where the ability to connect across different supply chain boundaries will be essential to provide traceability of multi-ingredient food products. A fruit pie, for example, will have a multiplicity of ingredients stemming from many different supply chains. Complexities will arise with respect to the range and variation in the accessible information required for traceability. They will also arise with respect to incompatibilities in systems' structures for transferring and accommodating appropriate information. While food safety and food quality may be seen as the primary drivers for traceability, other needs can and will be recognised for which traceability systems will be required. Food authentication, quality assurance, label verification, shrinkage (product loss) management, process development and consumer support are further areas in which traceability can be seen to be necessary, each characterised by particular functional needs that will increase overall complexity. This also draws attention to a system requirement for being able to distinguish and satisfy particular traceability functions using a common traceability system structure ¡À separating traceability functions from system requirements. It has to be recognised that the food production and supply industry is highly integrated and of global significance in terms of trading reach and trading opportunities. Harmonisation of traceability systems is required in order to avoid the almost inevitable chaos that could ensue through lack of compatibility and effective management of complexity. This becomes increasingly significant as traceability systems are structured to make more and more use of information and communications technology (ICT) and the opportunities for powerful and effective information transfer across communication networks such as the Internet. Aspects of commonality and moves towards exploiting existing standards for numbering and identification are, fortunately, evident in many of the systems under development. So too are developments in electronic data communications for business support purposes, offering potential for integration into traceability systems. Despite this attention to legacy, the need is still evident for deriving a generic approach to traceability that can handle cross-supply chain interaction and provide a logical framework for harmonisation and systems compatibility. Any approach would also have to support a growing list of traceability functions and allow effective management of supply chain complexity. Underpinning this generic approach is a deeper understanding of the nature of traceability and the factors influencing the need to implement traceability functions. Firstly, it is important to consider further why traceability is required, including the factors influencing the implementation of traceability systems. Food safety is the primary reason for traceability and various functional components can be distinguished. The UK Food Agency has identified the following functional roles for traceability within the food supply chain:1 ¡¤ Food safety incidents ¡À requiring robust traceability to facilitate rapid response to breakdowns in food safety, allowing remedial actions, such as product withdrawals and recalls to be initiated for the purposes of protecting public safety. ¡¤ Food residue surveillance programmes ¡À using traceability systems to facilitate food sampling at appropriate points throughout the food supply chain, testing for residues, such as pesticides, and mapping to establish where in the supply chain excessive residue levels may have occurred. ¡¤ Risk assessment from food exposure ¡À where a traceability system can facilitate access to information concerning foods or food ingredients that may have significance with respect to food safety. ¡¤ Enforcement of labelling claims ¡À using traceability to help resolve allegations of false labelling and help to determine supply chain integrity with respect to food claims. ¡¤ Fraud ¡À wherein effective traceability, regular audit and reconciliation measures can assist in preventing fraud and theft of food items. ¡¤ Food wastage ¡À where traceability and associated quality control systems can be applied to speed up and improve food distribution processes and reduce food wastage. ¡¤ Meat hygiene ¡À where traceability can help enforce and support meat hygiene in processing and handling of food within supply chains. Other reasons for traceability, often associated with safety, include compliance with food legislation, quality assurance of food producing and handling processes, authentication of food items, process and supply chain development and consumer services in respect of food products. Each of these factors constitutes a traceability function requiring access to relevant, function-defined, item-related information. By suitable partitioning and coding of information into sets, the traceability functions may be more readily accommodated and linked to a common traceability structure. A significant feature of a traceability system per se is that it should be continually available for traceability, yet is used only as and when required. As a stakeholder development requiring capital expenditure and expenditure to maintain, a traceability system may be viewed as an imposition, adding little or no value to the processes concerned. Where then is the incentive to implement traceability? Legislation is clearly a driving influence in this respect, but hardly seen as an incentive, unless perceived with respect to consumer confidence. Having to comply with regulatory demands rather forces the issue. However, through appropriate consideration of process structure and functionality, traceability systems may be devised that not only fulfil the traceability requirement, but also add value to the processes concerned. Such developments invariably make use of item-attendant data carriers that allow automatic identification and data gathering and facilitate improvements in process efficiencies and quality. Such developments may also be seen to align with quality practice. The ISO 9000 series of Quality standards, ISO 9001 in particular, distinguishes traceability as a requirement for compliance. It requires that a product be traceable from a current stage of existence back through all its stages of manufacture or production by means of either paper-based or computer-based records, accurately and promptly produced for the purpose. By adding value to the processes an incentive-based approach to traceability can be promoted. |
13Â¥2007-02-08 18:26:08
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Geographic traceability of cheese L. Pillonel and J. O. Bosset, Federal Dairy Research Station of Liebefeld, Switzerland 26.1 Introduction Food authenticity is a broad analytical challenge including many different types of misrepresentations (Lees, 1998). Determination of the geographic origin is one aspect which is receiving more attention with the increasing mobility and the low transport costs of our society. Food goods are travelling around the world whenever it is economically attractive. This traffic has its negative side which has been highlighted by recent food scandals (BSE, dioxin, etc).As a consequence, European consumers have become aware, and more afraid, of globalisation in the food sector. It is not surprising that organic foods, protected designation of origin (PDO) products and other labels continuously gain in popularity. A category of consumers is looking for traditional, regional, hand- made products which are supposed to be safer because they are more natural. If one wants to keep consumers' confidence in such labels, the early detection of any kind of fraud must be made possible. In the dairy sector, the control of the geographic origin is an important factor for PDO cheese and for cheese types produced in different countries and sold under the same name. Those countries, which originated a particular type of cheese, may wish to differentiate their product from legal copies made abroad (e.g., Emmental in Switzerland, Camembert in France, Mozzarella in Italy). Many investigations have already been carried out to characterise the Swiss (e.g., Bosset et al., 1992 and 1997, Bachmann et al., 1997, Biitikofer et al., 1998), the French (e.g., Berdague et al., 1990a, b), the German (e.g., Kielwein, 1975) and the Austrian (e.g., Jaros et al., 1996) Emmental, but few were dedicated to the analytical traceability of the geographic origin of a cheese sample. Rohm (1992) carried out a regional classification of Emmental cheese in |
14Â¥2007-03-08 23:58:38
15Â¥2007-03-09 13:02:06
16Â¥2007-03-10 07:40:29
17Â¥2007-03-25 00:28:37
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27.1 Introduction In recent years many countries including the European Union (EU) have introduced regulations for the release and use of genetically modified (GM) organisms (GMOs) and their derived products. These regulations commonly distinguish between authorisation of the GMOs and labelling of products derived from the GMOs. The authorisation procedure is usually meant to assure the safety of the GMO and its derived products, whereas labelling is meant to assure purchasers of products a freedom to choose between GM and non-GM products. A consequence of these regulations is that methods to assure compliance with the legislations are needed. To be able to distinguish between authorised and non-authorised GMOs, the methods must be able to identify the (source of) GMO (derived) material. The identity of a GMO is given by a unique transformation event, which is referred to in all official documents and notifications. Labelling requirements usually means that at the species level, the product must be labelled if the GMO content calculated on an additive basis exceeds a given threshold. The present food-labelling threshold in the EU (European Commission, 2000) is 1%. If a product contains three GM-maize derivatives, then the total GM-maize content (PGM-maize) ? content of GM- maize1 + content of GM-maize2 + content of GM-maize3, e.g., 0.6% + 0.4% + 0.4% ? 1.4%. This means that methods to identify and quantify the amount of each GMO must also be available. |
19Â¥2007-04-09 15:15:53
20Â¥2007-04-13 20:46:15
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consumer information and labelling for fish and fish products sold at retail. The new rules apply from 1 January 2002, although enforcement provisions in the UK aresubject to consultation until 7 May 2002. These provisions require all chilled, frozen and smoked fish or fillets and shellfish, when offered for retail sale to the final consumer to be labelled with: the commercial designation of the species; method of production (caught at sea, in inland waters or farmed) and the catch area (e.g. Pacific) or country of production if farmed. The Regulation requires that the labelling information, as well as the scientific name of the species, is given at each stage of the marketing chain. This information can be given by labelling or on packaging, or by means of commercial documents accompanying the product. In the UK it is generally understood that commercial documentation (e.g. sales note, invoice) is the usual means of providing this information through the chain. |
21Â¥2007-04-23 00:19:57
22Â¥2007-04-29 23:40:34
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