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[资源] Cambridge2010A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy

Contents
Preface xiii
Stars 1
1 Why do stars shine? 1
2 What are stars made of? 2
3 Why are stars round? 4
4 How many stars are there in the Galaxy? 4
5 How are the luminosities of stars measured? 6
6 How are the distances to stars measured? 7
7 Parsecs? Light-years? Why not miles or kilometers? 8
8 How are the masses of stars determined? 9
9 How big are the stars? 11
10 How big do stars get? 12
11 How old are the stars? 13
12 How old is the oldest star? 13
13 Do stars really come in different colors? 14
14 How many different kinds of star are there? 15
15 How do stars die? 17
16 What is a nova? A supernova? 19
17 What is a double star? 22
18 What are the Cepheids? 23
19 What is a pulsar? 24
20 Do stars ever collide? 24
21 Are we really made of stardust? 25
22 Do all civilizations recognize the same constellations? 26
23 How many constellations are there? 27
24 How are stars named? 29
25 Can we still discover and name stars? 30
26 Is there a southern polar star? 30
27 How many stars are visible to the naked eye? 31
28 Are the stars fixed or do they move? 32
29 Which star is closest to us? 32
30 Between stars that die and stars that are born, is the population
of our galaxy growing or shrinking? 33
31 Are there any isolated stars, outside of the galaxies? 33
32 Could nuclear fusion solve our energy problems? 34
The Solar System 36
33 How did the Solar System form? 36
34 Is any trace of our “ancestral” supernova still in existence? 39
35 How far out does our solar system extend? 39
v
vi Contents
36 How old is the Sun? 40
37 Has the Sun always been as bright as it is now? 40
38 What is our Sun’s future? 41
39 What will happen to the Earth when the Sun dies? 41
40 How hot is the Sun? 42
41 What causes sunspots? 43
42 Do sunspots influence the weather on Earth? 45
43 How was the distance to the Sun measured? 45
44 Is the distance between Earth and the Sun changing? 46
45 How can we know the mass of the Sun? 47
46 What is solar radiation pressure? 47
47 What is the solar wind? 47
48 How long does light from the Sun take to reach us? 48
49 What is the difference between a star and a planet? 48
50 What is a brown dwarf ? 49
51 Why are some planets rocky and others gaseous? 49
52 What are the interiors of planets and satellites like? 50
53 Where do the names of the planets come from? 51
54 What is Bode’s law? 52
55 What is Planet X? 53
56 Why is Pluto no longer a planet? 53
57 Why do some planets have many satellites and others, none? 54
58 How can Mercury survive so close to the Sun? 55
59 Why does Venus have phases like the Moon? 55
60 What is the Great Red Spot on Jupiter? 56
61 What are Saturn’s rings made of? 56
62 Do all the planets orbit in the same direction? 57
63 What are the Lagrangian points? 58
64 Why did the comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 break up as it approached
Jupiter? 59
65 Can planetary alignments cause catastrophic events on Earth? 60
66 Did asteroids cause the mass extinctions on Earth? 61
67 Where did the asteroid implicated in the extinction of the dinosaurs fall? 63
68 What could be done if an asteroid threatened to collide with Earth? 64
69 What is the Kuiper Belt? 64
70 Where do comets come from? 65
71 How big are comets? 66
72 What is a comet’s tail made of? 66
73 In the age of space probes, is it still useful to observe the planets
with telescopes? 67
74 What do the Mars rovers do? 67
75 Why colonize Mars? 68
76 Which way to Mars? 69
77 What is solar sailing? 69
78 How could the Voyagers explore so many planets and satellites
in one trip? 71
Contents vii
The Earth 72
79 How was the size of the Earth measured? 72
80 How was the mass of the Earth measured? 73
81 How old is the Earth? 75
82 What is inside the Earth? 77
83 Where did the water on Earth come from? 79
84 Do any of the other planets have oceans? 80
85 Where does the oxygen of our atmosphere come from? 81
86 What causes the seasons? 82
87 What is the precession of equinoxes? 83
88 What caused the “ice ages” on Earth? 84
89 What causes the Earth’s magnetic field? 86
90 Does the Earth’s magnetism affect people? 87
91 Why is the magnetic north different from the geographic
north? 87
92 What is the greenhouse effect? 88
93 Have days on Earth always been the same length? 90
94 What is sidereal time? 90
95 Why is the day divided into 24 hours? 91
96 How do sundials work? 92
97 How can the Sun be used to find directions? 93
98 How was the time zone system established? 93
The Moon 95
99 How did the Moon form? 95
100 Why is the Moon covered with craters? 96
101 What are the large dark areas on the Moon? 97
102 What does the far side of the Moon look like? 97
103 Does the Moon have the same composition as the Earth? 98
104 Why does the Moon lack an atmosphere? 99
105 Why does the Moon always present the same face to Earth? 100
106 Why does the Moon, rather than the Sun, cause most of our tides? 101
107 If the tide is mainly caused by the attraction of the Moon 102
108 Is it just coincidence that the apparent diameters of the Moon
and the Sun are the same? 103
109 How often do solar eclipses occur? 104
110 How can one tell if the Moon is waning or waxing? 105
111 What has been learned from our exploration of the Moon? 106
112 How useful would it be to return to the Moon? 107
113 What explains the dim light suffusing the dark portion of a crescent
Moon? 109
114 Has the Hubble Space Telescope been used to
observe the Moon? 109
115 “Moonstruck!” Does the Moon have an influence on
human behavior? 110
viii Contents
Celestial phenomena 111
116 What is a shooting star? 111
117 What causes meteor showers? 111
118 What causes the “northern lights?” 112
119 What is zodiacal light? 113
120 What causes the bright beams of light, like searchlights, that stream out
from the setting Sun? 114
121 Why is the setting Sun red? 115
122 Why are sunsets usually more colorful than sunrises? 116
123 What is the green flash? 116
124 Why do we never tan in the late afternoon? 117
125 Why do stars twinkle? 118
126 Why does the Moon look so large at the horizon? 119
The Universe 121
127 How old is the Universe? 121
128 How did the Universe begin? 122
129 How do we know that the Universe is expanding? 125
130 How fast is the Universe expanding? 126
131 Who invented the term “Big Bang?” 126
132 Does the Universe have a center? 127
133 What is the cosmic background radiation? 128
134 What is cosmic inflation? 130
135 When did the first stars form? 132
136 How did the first galaxies form? 133
137 Which came first, stars or galaxies? 134
138 What was there before the Big Bang? 135
139 What is string theory? 135
140 If the Universe is expanding, are we also expanding? 137
141 What explains the redshift of light? 137
142 How big is the Universe? 138
143 Does the Universe have boundaries? 140
144 What is the nature of gravity? 140
145 What is a black hole? 141
146 Can anything escape from a black hole? 143
147 What is dark energy? 144
148 If we cannot see dark matter, how do we know that it exists? 145
149 Were the laws of physics the same in the early Universe as they are now? 147
150 How much antimatter is there in the Universe? 148
151 How many galaxies are there in the Universe? 149
152 How many different types of galaxy are there? 150
153 What is the Milky Way? 151
154 What type of galaxy is the Milky Way? 152
155 What are the Magellanic Clouds? 154
156 How does the sky appear in different wavelengths? 156
Contents ix
157 What is a nebula? 157
158 How empty is space? 158
159 How did the theory of relativity affect astronomy? 160
160 What is meant by “four-dimensional space?” 161
161 Can anything go faster than the speed of light? 163
162 Why does everything in the Universe rotate? 164
163 Why is the night sky dark? 165
164 What is the anthropic principle? 166
165 What is the fate of the Universe? 168
166 What major questions remain to be answered in astronomy? 169
167 How can we hope to comprehend the astronomical numbers which
astronomy confronts us with? 170
168 Is there a difference between the cosmos and the Universe? 171
Life in the Universe 173
169 What is life? 173
170 How did life begin on Earth? 174
171 Does life violate the second law of thermodynamics? 176
172 Could intelligent life reverse the fate of the Universe? 177
173 Could life on Earth have originated in outer space? 177
174 Why is water so important for life? 178
175 Could life evolve based on a chemical element other than carbon? 179
176 What are extremophiles? 180
177 Given favorable conditions, will life inevitably appear? 181
178 Where in the Universe would life have the best chance of appearing? 181
179 Can planets exist around binary stars? 182
180 What are the odds that other intelligent life exists in our galaxy? 183
181 Where else in the Solar System could life exist? 184
182 How are exoplanets detected? 186
183 How could we detect the presence of life outside the Solar System? 188
184 Could the human race ever colonize exoplanets? 189
185 Could aliens have visited the Earth? 190
186 How could we communicate with other civilizations in the Galaxy? 191
History of astronomy 193
187 Why did ancient astronomers study the sky so intently? 193
188 How did the cult of the Sun originate? 193
189 Why were the Greek and Roman gods associated with the different
planets? 194
190 Can we learn anything from the astronomical phenomena reported
in the Bible? 195
191 How could the ancient astronomers predict eclipses? 195
192 Who were the most important astronomers
of antiquity? 196
193 What were the contributions of the Chinese, Indian, and Islamic
civilizations to astronomy? 197
x Contents
194 Who was responsible for overturning the geocentric system? 199
195 Who was the first astronomer to use a telescope? 202
196 Where were the earliest observatories? 203
197 How did the modern observatory evolve? 204
198 What have the major milestones been in our quest to understand the Universe? 204
199 Have any astronomers won the Nobel Prize? 205
200 Astrology, astronomy, astrophysics . . . what are the differences? 206
201 Is astronomy a “useful” science? 207
Telescopes 209
202 How do refracting and reflecting telescopes differ? 209
203 What does a large modern telescope look like? 210
204 What are the most common optical configurations? 212
205 How is the performance of a telescope measured? 213
206 What is the shape of a telescope mirror? 214
207 How are telescope mirrors made? 215
208 What is a Schmidt telescope? 217
209 Why are telescopes housed in domes? 218
210 Reflection, refraction, diffusion, dispersion . . . want a short refresher? 219
211 . . . and diffraction? 219
212 How is the resolving power of a telescope defined? 221
213 Do celestial objects look bigger through a large telescope? 222
214 Who invented the telescope? 223
215 What major improvements have been made in telescopes since Galileo’s time? 224
216 Why do astronomers want ever-larger telescopes? 226
217 What are the largest optical telescopes today? 227
218 How does the atmosphere degrade telescope images? 229
219 What is adaptive optics? 230
220 Are there any alternatives to traditional mirrors? 231
221 Where are the best astronomical sites? 232
222 What are the advantages of observing from space? 234
223 What are the main space observatories? 234
224 Which orbits are used for space telescopes? 237
225 Would the Moon be a good site for an observatory? 238
226 How is a space telescope pointed? 239
227 What is an astronomical interferometer? 239
228 How does a radio telescope work? 241
229 What can we learn from observations at radio wavelengths? 243
230 What is a submillimeter telescope? 244
231 What does an x-ray telescope look like? 245
232 What can be learned by observing at x-ray wavelengths? 246
233 How does a gamma ray telescope work? 246
234 How are gravitational waves detected? 247
235 How are neutrinos detected? 248
236 How is observing time allocated in a modern observatory? 248
Contents xi
Amateur astronomy 250
237 Interested in amateur astronomy? What are the first steps? 250
238 Which telescope should you choose? 251
239 What can be seen with an amateur telescope? 253
240 What is a Dobsonian telescope? 254
241 What is a Schmidt–Cassegrain? 255
242 What are the Messier objects? 256
243 Where are skies the darkest? 257
244 What important discoveries have amateurs made? 258
245 How can planets be spotted in the night sky? 260
246 Where and how can meteorites be found? 260
247 Can amateur astronomers participate in serious research programs? 260
248 You think you have made a discovery: what should you do? 261
249 How does one become a professional astronomer? 261
250 How can you find an amateur astronomy club? 262
Unit conversion and basic physical and astronomical measurements 264
References 265
Bibliography 267
Index 271
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