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Heat Transfer in Industrial Combustion
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Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Importance of Heat Transfer in Industrial Combustion 1.1.1 Energy Consumption 1.1.2 Research Needs 1.2 Literature Discussion 1.2.1 Heat Transfer 1.2.2 Combustion 1.2.3 Heat Transfer and Combustion 1.3 Combustion System Components 1.3.1 Burners 1.3.1.1 Competing Priorities 1.3.1.2 Design Factors 1.3.1.2.1 Fuel 1.3.1.2.2 Oxidizer 1.3.1.2.3 Gas Recirculation 1.3.1.3 General Burner Types 1.3.1.3.1 Mixing Type 1.3.1.3.2 Oxidizer Type 1.3.1.3.3 Draft Type 1.3.1.3.4 Heating Type 1.3.2 Combustors 1.3.2.1 Design Considerations 1.3.2.1.1 Load Handling 1.3.2.1.2 Temperature 1.3.2.1.3 Heat Recovery 1.3.2.2 General Classifications 1.3.2.2.1 Load Processing Method 1.3.2.2.2 Heating Type 1.3.2.2.3 Geometry 1.3.2.2.4 Heat Recuperation 1.3.3 Heat Load 1.3.3.1 Process Tubes 1.3.3.2 Moving Substrate 1.3.3.3 Opaque Materials 1.3.3.4 Transparent Materials 1.3.4 Heat Recovery Devices 1.3.4.1 Recuperators 1.3.4.2 Regenerators References Chapter 2 Some Fundamentals of Combustion 2.1 Combustion Chemistry 2.1.1 Fuel Properties 2.1.2 Oxidizer Composition © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 2.1.3 Mixture Ratio 2.1.4 Operating Regimes 2.2 Combustion Properties 2.2.1 Combustion Products 2.2.1.1 Oxidizer Composition 2.2.1.2 Mixture Ratio 2.2.1.3 Air and Fuel Preheat Temperature 2.2.1.4 Fuel Composition 2.2.2 Flame Temperature 2.2.2.1 Oxidizer and Fuel Composition 2.2.2.2 Mixture Ratio 2.2.2.3 Oxidizer and Fuel Preheat Temperature 2.2.3 Available Heat 2.2.4 Flue Gas Volume 2.3 Exhaust Product Transport Properties 2.3.1 Density 2.3.2 Specific Heat 2.3.3 Thermal Conductivity 2.3.4 Viscosity 2.3.5 Prandtl Number 2.3.6 Lewis Number References Chapter 3 Heat Transfer Modes 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Convection 3.2.1 Forced Convection 3.2.1.1 Forced Convection from Flames 3.2.1.2 Forced Convection from Outside Combustor Wall 3.2.1.3 Forced Convection from Hot Gases to Tubes 3.2.2 Natural Convection 3.2.2.1 Natural Convection from Flames 3.2.2.2 Natural Convection from Outside Combustor Wall 3.3 Radiation 3.3.1 Surface Radiation 3.3.2 Nonluminous Radiation 3.3.2.1 Theory 3.3.2.2 Combustion Studies 3.3.2.2.1 Total Radiation 3.3.2.2.2 Spectral Radiation 3.3.3 Luminous Radiation 3.3.3.1 Theory 3.3.3.2 Combustion Studies 3.3.3.2.1 Total Radiation 3.3.3.2.2 Spectral Radiation 3.4 Conduction 3.4.1 Steady-State Conduction 3.4.2 Transient Conduction 3.5 Phase Change 3.5.1 Melting 3.5.2 Boiling © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 3.5.2.1 Internal Boiling 3.5.2.2 External Boiling 3.5.3 Condensation References Chapter 4 Heat Sources and Sinks 4.1 Heat Sources 4.1.1 Combustibles 4.1.1.1 Fuel Combustion 4.1.1.2 Volatile Combustion 4.1.2 Thermochemical Heat Release 4.1.2.1 Equilibrium TCHR 4.1.2.2 Catalytic TCHR 4.1.2.3 Mixed TCHR 4.2 Heat Sinks 4.2.1 Load 4.2.1.1 Tubes 4.2.1.2 Substrate 4.2.1.3 Granular Solid 4.2.1.4 Molten Liquid 4.2.1.5 Surface Conditions 4.2.1.5.1 Radiation 4.2.1.5.2 Catalyticity 4.2.2 Wall Losses 4.2.3 Openings 4.2.3.1 Radiation 4.2.3.2 Gas Flow Through Openings 4.2.4 Material Transport References Chapter 5 Computer Modeling 5.1 Combustion Modeling 5.2 Modeling Approaches 5.2.1 Fluid Dynamics 5.2.1.1 Moment Averaging 5.2.1.2 Vortex Methods 5.2.1.3 Spectral Methods 5.2.1.4 Direct Numerical Simulation 5.2.2 Geometry 5.2.2.1 Zero-Dimensional Modeling 5.2.2.2 One-Dimensional Modeling 5.2.2.3 Multi-dimensional Modeling 5.2.3 Reaction Chemistry 5.2.3.1 Nonreacting Flows 5.2.3.2 Simplified Chemistry 5.2.3.3 Complex Chemistry 5.2.4 Radiation 5.2.4.1 Nonradiating 5.2.4.2 Participating Media 5.2.5 Time Dependence © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 5.2.5.1 Steady State 5.2.5.2 Transient 5.3 Simplified Models 5.4 Computational Fluid Dynamic Modeling 5.4.1 Increasing Popularity of CFD 5.4.2 Potential Problems of CFD 5.4.3 Equations 5.4.3.1 Fluid Dynamics 5.4.3.2 Heat Transfer 5.4.3.3 Chemistry 5.4.3.4 Multiple Phases 5.4.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions 5.4.4.1 Inlets and Outlets 5.4.4.2 Surfaces 5.4.4.3 Symmetry 5.4.5 Discretization 5.4.5.1 Finite Difference Technique 5.4.5.2 Finite Volume Technique 5.4.5.3 Finite Element Technique 5.4.5.4 Mixed 5.4.5.5 None 5.4.6 Solution Methods 5.4.7 Model Validation 5.4.8 Industrial Combustion Examples 5.4.8.1 Modeling Burners 5.4.8.2 Modeling Combustors References Chapter 6 Experimental Techniques 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Heat Flux 6.2.1 Total Heat Flux 6.2.1.1 Steady-State Uncooled Solids 6.2.1.2 Steady-State Cooled Solids 6.2.1.2.1 Single Cooling Circuit 6.2.1.2.2 Multiple Cooling Circuits 6.2.1.2.3 Surface Probe 6.2.1.3 Steady-State Cooled Gages 6.2.1.3.1 Gradient Through a Thin Solid Rod 6.2.1.3.2 Thin Disk Calorimeter 6.2.1.3.3 Heat Flux Transducer 6.2.1.4 Transient Uncooled Targets 6.2.1.5 Transient Uncooled Gages 6.2.1.5.1 Slug Calorimeter 6.2.1.5.2 Heat Flux Transducer 6.2.2 Radiant Heat Flux 6.2.2.1 Heat Flux Gage 6.2.2.2 Ellipsoidal Radiometer 6.2.2.3 Spectral Radiometer 6.2.2.4 Other Techniques 6.2.3 Convective Heat Flux © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 6.3 Temperature 6.3.1 Gas Temperature 6.3.1.1 Suction Pyrometer 6.3.1.2 Optical Techniques 6.3.1.3 Fine Wire Thermocouples 6.3.1.4 Line Reversal 6.3.2 Surface Temperature 6.3.2.1 Embedded Thermocouple 6.3.2.2 Infrared Detectors 6.4 Gas Flow 6.4.1 Gas Velocity 6.4.1.1 Pitot Tubes 6.4.1.2 Laser Doppler Velocimetry 6.4.1.3 Other Techniques 6.4.2 Static Pressure Distribution 6.4.2.1 Stagnation Velocity Gradient 6.4.2.2 Stagnation Zone 6.5 Gas Species 6.6 Other Measurements 6.7 Physical Modeling References Chapter 7 Flame Impingement 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Experimental Conditions 7.2.1 Configurations 7.2.1.1 Flame Normal to a Cylinder in Crossflow 7.2.1.2 Flame Normal to a Hemispherically Nosed Cylinder 7.2.1.3 Flame Normal to a Plane Surface 7.2.1.4 Flame Parallel to a Plane Surface 7.2.2 Operating Conditions 7.2.2.1 Oxidizers 7.2.2.2 Fuels 7.2.2.3 Equivalence Ratios 7.2.2.4 Firing Rates 7.2.2.5 Reynolds Number 7.2.2.6 Burners 7.2.2.7 Nozzle Diameter 7.2.2.8 Location 7.2.3 Stagnation Targets 7.2.3.1 Size 7.2.3.2 Target Materials 7.2.3.3 Surface Preparation 7.2.3.4 Surface Temperatures 7.2.4 Measurements 7.3 Semianalytical Heat Transfer Solutions 7.3.1 Equation Parameters 7.3.1.1 Thermophysical Properties 7.3.1.2 Stagnation Velocity Gradient 7.3.1.2.1 Analytical Solutions 7.3.1.2.2 Empirical Correlations © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 7.3.2 Equations 7.3.2.1 Sibulkin Results 7.3.2.2 Fay and Riddell Results 7.3.2.3 Rosner Results 7.3.3 Comparisons With Experiments 7.3.3.1 Forced Convection (Negligible TCHR) 7.3.3.1.1 Laminar Flow 7.3.3.1.2 Turbulent Flows 7.3.3.2 Forced Convection with TCHR 7.3.3.2.1 Laminar Flow 7.3.3.2.2 Turbulent Flow 7.3.4 Sample Calculations 7.3.4.1 Laminar Flames Without TCHR 7.3.4.2 Turbulent Flames Without TCHR 7.3.4.3 Laminar Flames with TCHR 7.3.5 Summary 7.4 Empirical Heat Transfer Correlations 7.4.1 Thermophysical Properties 7.4.2 Flames Impinging Normal to a Cylinder 7.4.2.1 Local Convection Heat Transfer 7.4.2.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 7.4.2.1.2 Turbulent Flows 7.4.2.2 Average Convection Heat Transfer 7.4.2.2.1 Laminar Flows 7.4.2.2.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 7.4.2.2.3 Flow Type Unspecified 7.4.2.3 Average Convection Heat Transfer with TCHR 7.4.2.3.1 Flow Type Unspecified 7.4.2.4 Average Radiation Heat Transfer 7.4.2.4.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 7.4.2.5 Maximum Convection and Radiation Heat Transfer 7.4.2.5.1 Turbulent Flows 7.4.3 Flames Impinging Normal to a Hemi-Nosed Cylinder 7.4.3.1 Local Convection Heat Transfer 7.4.3.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 7.4.3.1.2 Turbulent Flows 7.4.3.2 Local Convection Heat Transfer with TCHR 7.4.3.2.1 Turbulent Flows 7.4.4 Flames Impinging Normal to a Plane Surface 7.4.4.1 Local Convection Heat Transfer 7.4.4.1.1 Laminar Flows 7.4.4.1.2 Turbulent Flows 7.4.4.2 Local Convection Heat Transfer with TCHR 7.4.4.2.1 Laminar Flows 7.4.4.2.2 Turbulent Flows 7.4.4.3 Average Convection Heat Transfer 7.4.4.3.1 Laminar Flows 7.4.4.3.2 Turbulent Flows 7.4.5 Flames Parallel to a Plane Surface 7.4.5.1 Local Convection Heat Transfer With TCHR © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 7.4.5.1.1 Laminar Flows 7.4.5.1.2 Turbulent Flows 7.4.5.2 Local Convection and Radiation Heat Transfer 7.4.5.2.1 Turbulent Flows References Chapter 8 Heat Transfer from Burners 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Open-Flame Burners 8.2.1 Momentum Effects 8.2.2 Flame Luminosity 8.2.3 Firing Rate Effects 8.2.4 Flame Shape Effects 8.3 Radiant Burners 8.3.1 Perforated Ceramic or Wire Mesh Radiant Burners 8.3.2 Flame Impingement Radiant Burners 8.3.3 Porous Refractory Radiant Burners 8.3.4 Advanced Ceramic Radiant Burners 8.3.5 Radiant Wall Burners 8.3.6 Radiant Tube Burners 8.4 Effects on Heat Transfer 8.4.1 Fuel Effects 8.4.1.1 Solid Fuels 8.4.1.2 Liquid Fuels 8.4.1.3 Gaseous Fuels 8.4.1.4 Fuel Temperature 8.4.2 Oxidizer Effects 8.4.2.1 Oxidizer Composition 8.4.2.2 Oxidizer Temperature 8.4.3 Staging Effects 8.4.3.1 Fuel Staging 8.4.3.2 Oxidizer Staging 8.4.4 Burner Orientation 8.4.4.1 Hearth-Fired Burners 8.4.4.2 Wall-Fired Burners 8.4.4.3 Roof-Fired Burners 8.4.4.4 Side-Fired Burners 8.4.5 Heat Recuperation 8.4.5.1 Regenerative Burners 8.4.5.2 Recuperative Burners 8.4.5.3 Furnace or Flue Gas Recirculation 8.4.6 Pulse Combustion 8.5 In-Flame Treatment References Chapter 9 Heat Transfer in Furnaces 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Furnaces 9.2.1 Firing Method © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 9.2.1.1 Direct Firing 9.2.1.2 Indirect Firing 9.2.1.3 Heat Distribution 9.2.2 Load Processing Method 9.2.2.1 Batch Processing 9.2.2.2 Continuous Processing 9.2.2.3 Hybrid Processing 9.2.3 Heat Transfer Medium 9.2.3.1 Gaseous Medium 9.2.3.2 Vacuum 9.2.3.3 Liquid Medium 9.2.3.4 Solid Medium 9.2.4 Geometry 9.2.4.1 Rotary Geometry 9.2.4.2 Rectangular Geometry 9.2.4.3 Ladle Geometry 9.2.4.4 Vertical Cylindrical Geometry 9.2.5 Furnace Types 9.2.5.1 Reverberatory Furnace 9.2.5.2 Shaft Kiln 9.2.5.3 Rotary Furnace 9.3 Heat Recovery 9.3.1 Recuperators 9.3.2 Regenerators 9.3.3 Gas Recirculation 9.3.3.1 Flue Gas Recirculation 9.3.3.2 Furnace Gas Recirculation References Chapter 10 Lower Temperature Applications 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Ovens and Dryers 10.2.1 Predryer 10.2.2 Dryer 10.3 Fired Heaters 10.3.1 Reformer 10.3.2 Process Heater 10.4 Heat Treating 10.4.1 Standard Atmosphere 10.4.2 Special Atmosphere References Chapter 11 Higher Temperature Applications 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Furnaces 11.1.2 Industries 11.2 Metals Industry 11.2.1 Ferrous Metal Production 11.2.1.1 Electric Arc Furnace 11.2.1.2 Smelting © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 11.2.1.3 Ladle Preheating 11.2.1.4 Reheating Furnace 11.2.1.5 Forging 11.2.2 Aluminum Metal Production 11.3 Minerals Industry 11.3.1 Glass 11.3.1.1 Types of Traditional Glass-Melting Furnaces 11.3.1.2 Unit Melter 11.3.1.3 Recuperative Melter 11.3.1.4 Regenerative or Siemens Furnace 11.3.1.4.1 End-Port Regenerative Furnace 11.3.1.4.2 Side-Port Regenerative Furnace 11.3.1.5 Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion for Glass Production 11.3.1.6 Advanced Techniques for Glass Production 11.3.2 Cement and Lime 11.3.3 Bricks, Refractories, and Ceramics 11.4 Waste Incineration 11.4.1 Types of Incinerators 11.4.1.1 Municipal Waste Incinerators 11.4.1.2 Sludge Incinerators 11.4.1.3 Mobile Incinerators 11.4.1.4 Transportable Incinerators 11.4.1.5 Fixed Hazardous Waste Incinerators 11.4.2 Heat Transfer in Waste Incineration References Chapter 12 Advanced Combustion Systems 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion 12.2.1 Typical Use Methods 12.2.1.1 Air Enrichment 12.2.1.2 O2 Lancing 12.2.1.3 Oxy/Fuel 12.2.1.4 Air-Oxy/Fuel 12.2.2 Operating Regimes 12.2.3 Heat Transfer Benefits 12.2.3.1 Increased Productivity 12.2.3.2 Higher Thermal Efficiencies 12.2.3.3 Higher Heat Transfer Efficiency 12.2.3.4 Increased Flexibility 12.2.4 Potential Heat Transfer Problems 12.2.4.1 Refractory Damage 12.2.4.2 Nonuniform Heating 12.2.4.2.1 Hotspots 12.2.4.2.2 Reduction in Convection 12.2.5 Industrial Heating Applications 12.2.5.1 Metals 12.2.5.2 Minerals 12.2.5.3 Incineration 12.2.5.4 Other © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 12.3 Submerged Combustion 12.3.1 Metals Production 12.3.2 Minerals Production 12.3.3 Liquid Heating 12.4 Miscellaneous 12.4.1 Surface Combustor-Heater 12.4.2 Direct-Fired Cylinder Dryer References Appendices Appendix A: Reference Sources for Further Information Appendix B: Common Conversions Appendix C: Methods of Expressing Mixture Ratios for CH4, C3H8, and H2 Appendix D: Properties for CH4, C3H8, and H2 Flames Appendix E: Fluid Dynamics Equations Appendix F: Material Properties © 2000 |
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