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The Biology of Deserts
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1 Introduction 1 1.1 General introduction 1 1.2 What creates a desert? 2 1.3 Deserts have low precipitation and high variability in precipitation 2 1.4 How old are deserts? 3 1.5 Deserts are created by a lack of precipitation and not high temperatures 4 1.6 Aridity indices 5 1.7 What denies rainfall to deserts? 7 2 Abiotic factors 11 2.1 Precipitation 11 2.2 Temperature 19 2.3 Geology 20 2.4 Fire 27 3 Morphological and physiological adaptations of desert plants to the abiotic environment 29 3.1 Classifi cations of desert plants 29 3.2 Types of photosynthesis 34 3.3 Biological soil crusts 39 3.4 Annual plants 40 3.5 Grasses, forbs and shrubs/perennials 48 3.6 Geophytes 51 3.7 Stem and leaf succulents 56 3.8 Halophytes 60 3.9 Phreatophytes 62 x CONTENTS 4 Morphological, physiological, and behavioural adaptations of desert animals to the abiotic environment 66 4.1 Evaders and evaporators 68 4.2 Adaptations to handle unique situations 84 4.3 Endurers 87 4.4 Removing the eff ects of phylogeny 92 5 The role of competition and facilitation in structuring desert communities 102 5.1 Plant communities 102 5.2 Competition between animals 107 5.3 Indirect interactions: keystone species, apparent competition, and priority eff ects 118 6 The importance of predation and parasitism 124 6.1 Direct mortality 124 6.2 Predation risk 125 6.3 Isodars 126 6.4 Spiders 129 6.5 Scorpions 131 6.6 Visually hunting predators 132 6.7 Snakes, scent-hunting predators 133 6.8 Keystone predation 135 6.9 Animal parasites and parasitoids 137 7 Plant–animal interactions in deserts 145 7.1 Herbivory 145 7.2 Pollination 158 7.3 Seed dispersal and seed predation 167 7.4 Are these coevolved systems? 170 8 Desert food webs and ecosystem ecology 177 8.1 Do deserts have simple food webs? 177 8.2 Th e fi rst supermodel—HSS 179 8.3 Interactions among habitats—donor–recipient habitat interactions 183 8.4 Eff ects of precipitation, nutrients, disturbances and decomposition 184 CONTENTS xi 9 Biodiversity and biogeography of deserts 192 9.1 Are deserts species-poor? , , and diversity patterns 193 9.2 Productivity–diversity relationships in deserts 199 9.3 Convergence and divergence of desert communities 202 9.4 Large-scale patterns in desert biogeography 208 10 Human impacts and desertifi cation 217 10.1 Th e sensitive desert ecosystem: myth or reality? 217 10.2 Pastoralism is the most important use of desert lands 222 10.3 Military manoeuvres threaten some desert habitats and protect others 237 10.4 Pumping aquifers: a problem of less water and more salinity 239 10.5 An embarrassment of riches: oil extraction in desert environments 240 10.6 When is it desertifi cation? Th e importance of reversibility 242 11 Conservation of deserts 246 11.1 Are deserts worth conserving? 246 11.2 Conservation of desert species or habitats 246 11.3 Th e 3 Rs: reintroduction, recolonization, and revegetation 256 11.4 Th e coalface of evolution—genotype by environment interactions 261 11.5 Who gets to pay for this conservation and how is it controlled? 264 11.6 Conclusions 267 REFERENCES 269 INDEX 317 |
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