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×÷ÕߣºBENGT ANDERSSON Chalmers University, Sweden RONNIE ANDERSSON Chalmers University, Sweden LOVE HA¡ã KANSSON Engineering Data Resources ¨C EDR, Norway MIKAEL MORTENSEN Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Norway RAHMAN SUDIYO University of Gadjah Mada, Indonesia BEREND VAN WACHEM Imperial College London, UK Contents Preface page ix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Modelling in engineering 1 1.2 CFD simulations 1 1.3 Applications in engineering 2 1.4 Flow 2 1.4.1 Laminar flow 3 1.4.2 Turbulent flow 3 1.4.3 Single-phase flow 4 1.4.4 Multiphase flow 4 1.5 CFD programs 4 2 Modelling 8 2.1 Mass, heat and momentum balances 9 2.1.1 Viscosity, diffusion and heat conduction 9 2.2 The equation of continuity 12 2.3 The equation of motion 14 2.4 Energy transport 16 2.4.1 The balance for kinetic energy 16 2.4.2 The balance for thermal energy 18 2.5 The balance for species 18 2.6 Boundary conditions 18 2.6.1 Inlet and outlet boundaries 19 2.6.2 Wall boundaries 19 2.6.3 Symmetry and axis boundary conditions 20 2.6.4 Initial conditions 20 2.6.5 Domain settings 21 2.7 Physical properties 21 2.7.1 The equation of state 22 2.7.2 Viscosity 22 http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139093590 Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2012 vi Contents 3 Numerical aspects of CFD 24 3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Numerical methods for CFD 25 3.2.1 The finite-volume method 25 3.2.2 Geometrical definitions 26 3.3 Cell balancing 26 3.3.1 The convective term 27 3.3.2 The diffusion term 28 3.3.3 The source term 28 3.4 Example 1 ¨C 1D mass diffusion in a flowing gas 29 3.4.1 Solution 29 3.4.2 Concluding remarks 33 3.5 The Gauss¨CSeidel algorithm 33 3.6 Example 2 ¨C Gauss¨CSeidel 34 3.7 Measures of convergence 37 3.8 Discretization schemes 38 3.8.1 Example 3 ¨C increased velocity 39 3.8.2 Boundedness and transportiveness 40 3.8.3 The upwind schemes 40 3.8.4 Taylor expansions 42 3.8.5 Accuracy 43 3.8.6 The hybrid scheme 44 3.8.7 The power-law scheme 45 3.8.8 The QUICK scheme 45 3.8.9 More advanced discretization schemes 46 3.9 Solving the velocity field 47 3.9.1 Under-relaxation 49 3.10 Multigrid 50 3.11 Unsteady flows 51 3.11.1 Example 4 ¨C time-dependent simulation 52 3.11.2 Conclusions on the different time discretization methods 57 3.12 Meshing 58 3.12.1 Mesh generation 58 3.12.2 Adaptation 60 3.12.3 Numerical diffusion 60 3.13 Summary 61 4 Turbulent-flow modelling 62 4.1 The physics of fluid turbulence 62 4.1.1 Characteristic features of turbulent flows 63 4.1.2 Statistical methods 66 4.1.3 Flow stability 69 4.1.4 The Kolmogorov hypotheses 70 http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139093590 Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2012 Contents vii 4.1.5 The energy cascade 72 4.1.6 Sources of turbulence 74 4.1.7 The turbulent energy spectrum 75 4.2 Turbulence modelling 76 4.2.1 Direct numerical simulation 79 4.2.2 Large-eddy simulation 79 4.2.3 Reynolds decomposition 81 4.2.4 Models based on the turbulent viscosity hypothesis 86 4.2.5 Reynolds stress models (RSMs) 96 4.2.6 Advanced turbulence modelling 99 4.2.7 Comparisons of various turbulence models 99 4.3 Near-wall modelling 99 4.3.1 Turbulent boundary layers 101 4.3.2 Wall functions 104 4.3.3 Improved near-wall-modelling 107 4.3.4 Comparison of three near-wall modelling approaches 109 4.4 Inlet and outlet boundary conditions 110 4.5 Summary 112 5 Turbulent mixing and chemical reactions 113 5.1 Introduction 114 5.2 Problem description 115 5.3 The nature of turbulent mixing 117 5.4 Mixing of a conserved scalar 119 5.4.1 Mixing timescales 119 5.4.2 Probability density functions 120 5.4.3 Modelling of turbulent mixing 124 5.5 Modelling of chemical reactions 130 5.5.1 Da ≪ 1 130 5.5.2 Da ≫ 1 131 5.5.3 Da ¡Ö 1 138 5.6 Non-PDF models 141 5.7 Summary 142 6 Multiphase flow modelling 143 6.1 Introduction 144 6.1.1 Characterization of multiphase flows 144 6.1.2 Coupling between a continuous phase and a dispersed phase 146 6.2 Forces on dispersed particles 147 6.3 Computational models 149 6.3.1 Choosing a multiphase model 150 6.3.2 Direct numerical simulations 151 6.3.3 Lagrangian particle simulations, the point-particle approach 152 http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139093590 Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2012 viii Contents 6.3.4 Euler¨CEuler models 155 6.3.5 The mixture model 156 6.3.6 Models for stratified fluid¨Cfluid flows 158 6.3.7 Models for flows in porous media 160 6.4 Closure models 161 6.4.1 Interphase drag 161 6.4.2 Particle interactions 163 6.4.3 Heat and mass transfer 168 6.5 Boundaries and boundary conditions 169 6.5.1 Lagrangian dispersed phase 169 6.5.2 Eulerian dispersed phase 170 6.6 Summary 171 6.6.1 Guidelines for selecting a multiphase model 172 7 Best-practice guidelines 174 7.1 Application uncertainty 175 7.1.1 Geometry and grid design 175 7.2 Numerical uncertainty 175 7.2.1 Convergence 175 7.2.2 Enhancing convergence 176 7.2.3 Numerical errors 176 7.2.4 Temporal discretization 177 7.3 Turbulence modelling 177 7.3.1 Boundary conditions 177 7.4 Reactions 178 7.5 Multiphase modelling 178 7.6 Sensitivity analysis 180 7.7 Verification, validation and calibration 180 Appendix 181 References 185 Index 186 |
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