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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)

[交流] 考研英语写作大攻略

短文写作只有一题，占20分。考生应能写不同类型的应用文，包括私人和公务信函、备忘录、摘要、报告等，还应能写一般描述性、叙述性和说明或议论性的文章。要求内容切题，表达清楚，意义连贯，语言比较规范。
　　1． 内容切题。指的是审题准，不跑题。扣不准题或是文不对题均会严重影响成绩；
　　2． 表达清楚。指的是语言要简洁，准确，说理清楚，读者能从内容明白作者的意图；
　　3． 意义连贯。文字连贯，语言流畅，层次分明才能使意义表达完整。要使文章意义连贯必须具有一定运用的技能，包括较强的语感，遣词造句能力和文章组织能力。
　　4． 语言规范。指的是要符合英语的表达习惯，语法错误少，语言基本功扎实，写出的文章不是中式英语。
　　考生应能：
　　1． 做到语法、拼写、标点正确，用词恰当；
　　2． 遵循文章的特定文体格式；
　　3． 合理组织文章结构，使其内容统一、连贯；
　　4． 根据写作目的的特定读者，恰当选用语言。
　　内容导航：
　　第一章 评分标准及考生存在的问题分析
　　第二章 作文出题的题材类型
　　第三章 作文高分标准
　　第四章 如何进行选词
　　第五章 如何写好句子
　　第六章 段落的写作
　　第七章 文章的完成
　　第八章 英语作文常用句型

第一章 评分标准及考生存在的问题分析

　　短文写作评分标准是根据内容、文字、句子和用词来制定的，近几年的评分标准如下（供考生参考）：
　　写作：1题，20分。
　　本题采用通篇分档计分，计分标准如下：
　　20－17分：内容切题，包括题中所列三方面的内容：清楚表达其内涵，文字连贯；句式有变化，句子结构和用词正确。文章长度符合要求。
　　16－13分：内容切题，包括题中所列三方面的内容；比较清楚地表达其内涵；文字基本连贯；句式有一定变化，句子结构和用词无重大错误。文章长度符合要求。
　　12－9分：内容切题，基本包括题中所列三方面的内容：基本清楚地表达其内涵；句子结构和用词有少量错误。文章长度符合要求。
　　8－5分：内容基本功题，基本包含题中所列三方面的内容；语句可以理解，但有较多的句子结构和词错误。文章长度基本符合要求。
　　4－1分：基本按要求写作，但只有少数句子可理解。
　　0分：文不切题，语句混乱、无法理解。
　　从20份考卷抽样分析，考生的写作成绩并不理想。要想写出一篇高分作文须具备两个条件：
　　一是扎实的英语语言基础，二是掌握一定的写作技巧。否则在40分钟之内完成一篇200字的优秀作文是难以思议的。
　　●一篇好的作文应基本达到：
　　1. 有较好的写作基础，文章流畅，遣词造句不当，文章结构完整，内容符合要求；
　　2. 语法基本正确；
　　3. 句法基本准确，句子与句子段落之间过渡连贯；
　　4. 有一定词汇量，字数符合要求；
　　5. 说理清楚，内容充实。
　　●一篇较差的作文表现为：
　　1． 文章不通顺，无段落，无结构，无明显主题；
　　2． 出现很多基本语法错误，拼写错误；
　　3． 词汇量很小，词不达意，缺乏英语表达能力；
　　4． 不像一篇文章，仅是把一些不连贯的词语拼凑到一起。
　　通过对考生试卷所有作的抽样分析，我们总结出考生主要存在一步到位问题：
　　1．不会审题。很多考生在着手做写作题时并无审题和构思的概念，有的担心时间不够，有的则是无从下笔，结果不是文不对题就是时间己过半，只好草草收场。
　　2． 用汉语思维，逐字翻译。有的考生对英语词造句无把握，便用汉语构思文章，同时将汉语句子硬译英语，结果是非驴非马，无法理解。
　　3． 用词搭配不当。英语语言是一大特点是其丰富的习惯用语和固定搭配，包括动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语等，例如（花费很多时间做某事）“spend much time in…”不能改成“take much time in…”。词与词之间固定搭配是由历史形成的，有的看起来不符合逻辑，但却是地道用法。
　　4． 词汇量小，拼写困难。部分学生能在写作中运用的词汇量太少，有的知道用法但拼写不出来，结果　只能用中文取而代之，成绩自然不会理想。
　　5． 句子逻辑关系混乱。部分考生因受汉语结构的影响，对句子中主谓及状语之间的位置安排不妥，造成逻辑混乱。例如：
Our English class often told stories.
应改为：We often told stories in our English class.
　　6. 不会应用关联词转承上下句子和段落。关联词起过渡作用，使上下句子和段落合理，承上启下，使表达合乎逻辑，同时结构严谨，文章紧凑。例如：
People lean English to use it , Some learn it so study or work abroad . Others learn it to read books and magazines in English or have something to do with English-speaking foreigners.采用适当关联词，改进为:people learn English for practical purposes :some learn it to study or work abroad, while others learn it to read or communicate in English.
　　7. 语法错误。语法错误主要表现为：
　　i. 分不清及物与不及物动词，例如：rise和raise; hear和listen等
　　ii. 被动与主动语态的误用，例如：interesting和interested; speaking和spoken 等；
　　iii. 词类混淆，将动词或形容词误作名词用，将名词和动词误作形容词用等；例如：benefit和beneficial; difficult和difficulty; pleasure和pleased等。
　　iv. 混淆可数名词与不可数名词，例如:help, practice 等。
　　v. 冠词、情态动词、介词、代词等方面的错误，例如：a English book, should did, must done等。
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
第二章 作文出题的题材类型

　　从历年作文试题的出题范围来分析，其题材一般均贴近生活，要求写作的知识范围均为考生所熟悉，容易取材，具有一定可写性。但写作形式均为控制性写作，题材类型分为几类：标题作文、提纲作文、图表作文、规定情景式作文及综合型作文等。例如：

　　一、主题句作文
　　主句作文也称为段首句作文，要求考生在每段所给主题句基础上加以扩展，完成段落，再由段落组成文章。主题句作文是目前较常用的一种出题方式，它不像一般正规文章那样要求具有开头段和结尾段，一般只给出三句主题句，所以属于一种简单的三段式作文。
　　Example 1
　　Title: Dictionary……
　　(1) The dictionary is a living teacher
　　(2) Skills will develop with your constant use of various dictionaries. ……
　　(3) But you should have one thing in mind……

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Dictionary
　　The dictionary is living teacher. Whenever you come across a new word, just consult it and you will get a clear definition. Every student, whether attending school or self-taught, should always have a dictionary at hand. As a study aid, it is convenient, inexpensive and all-knowing.
　　Skills will develop with your constant use of various dictionaries The more you use them, the more familiar you will become with them. Sooner or later, you will be quite skilled in finding the page, scanning the entries and locating the exact meaning of the new words.
　　But you should have one thing mind. As a language student, you should never depend too much on dictionaries. Basic language skill do not come from dictionaries, but from your practice. Learn the language by listening, speaking, reading and writing more, and that is the only way to the mastery of a language.

　　Example2
　　Title: The Computer
　　(1) The computer is a wonderful machine
　　(2) Computers play an important role in our life
　　(3) However, many scientists don’s think that computers will replace us completely.

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　The Computer
　　The computer is a wonderful machine. It is the most important invention in many years.
　　Today it is used a great deal in various fields. Especially, it is useful in automatic control and data processing. And now it is finding its way into the home.
　　Computers play an important role in our life. They can do most of things people can do They can give you information on buying and selling things. Provide you with suggestion of how to deal with certain illness and how to solve the problems you are faced with. There is no doubt that people can live much easier with the help of the computers.
However, many scientists don’t think that computers will replace us completely. No matter how clever they may become, computers are no more that an extension for human brain.

　　二、提纲式作文
　　提纲式作文为考生提供了题目与一个简单的写作提纲，将考生的写作控制在一定范畴。
　　它要求考生紧扣题目主题，并根据提纲提示的思路和要点展开段落。由于提供的写作提纲一般也为三段，所以考生也可以按照三段式作文将简单的提纲展为主题句，再按照主题句作文的写作方法将文章写成。

　　Example
　　Title: The Telephone
　　Outline: 1. A useful tool
　　2. How to use it
　　3. The improvement of its use

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　The Telephone
　　The telephone is an efficient means of communication, which enables people to talk with each other over long distances. If you are overseas and your family is left behind, you may miss them now and then . Besides fishing out their photos, you can dial a long distance call and send your love to them. For business with another company, the telephone is the most convenient means for you to turn to. It saves much of your travel.
　　It is easy to learn how to use a telephone. First, take the receiver off the hook. Then listen for the dial tone . You can begin to dial the number you want when you hear a long steady signal. If you hear a rapid series of very short tones after dialing, the phone is “busy”. Each town has special emergency numbers for the fire department and police station, which are often listed in the front of the telephone directory.
　　People have mdae much improvement in telephone. For example, they can record telephone talks on tapes, use a radio telephone on a moving car or see the speaker by using the vision telephone.

　　三、图表式作文
　　图表式作文可综合提供题目、数据、图像、提纲，形式多样，是一种控制性和应用性更强的作文的出题方式，从写作类型来看，基本上属于说明文。考生要围绕题目并将有关信息转化为文字形式，这要求考生具有一定数据分析和材料归纳的能力，同时运用一定的写作方法。考研试题一般以三段式写作方法来组织文章，第一段总结归纳信息反映的总的情况，点出主题思想，第二段回答第一段所得出的问题，对数字、数据等信息作出有条理的分析比较，第三段作出总结或给以简单评论。
　　Example1
　　Directions: Write a composition no Changes in People’s Diet. Study the following table carefully and your composition must be based on the information giver in the table. Write three paragraphs to:
　　(1) State the changes in people’s diet in the past five years;
　　(2) Give possible reasons for the changes;
　　(3) Draw your own conclusions.
　　You should quote as few figures as possible.


　　　　　　　　　　　　Changes in People’s Diet
　　Diet is very important in people’s life . From 1987 to 1990. people’s diet changed a lot . Grain was no longer regarded as the main food. And as the proportion of fruit and vegetables declined, the consumption of milk and meat increased.
　　What caused these changes? There are two reasons. One is that with the development of science, people began to realize the importance of maintaining a balanced diet. The other is that people had more money to spend and could afford more expensive food. They tried to change their low-priced diet into a more varied one. They were eager to build up a strong body by improving their living standards.
　　With the development of our economy and the improvement of our food supply, further changes will take place in people’s diet.

　　Example2
　　Directions: Write a composition based on the charts of the average family expenses in the United Stated. The opening sentence is given and you are required to develop it into a full composition.
The opening sentence: The average family income in the United States increased from 12,000 dollars per year in 1980 to 16,000 dollars in 1985.



　　　　　　　　　　　The Average Family Expenses
　　The average family income in the United States has increased from 12,000 dollars per year in 1980 to 16,000 dollars in 1985. In the meantime, the structure of the average family expenses has changed, too. These graphs show the change clearly.
　　The biggest part of the average family expenses was housing. In 1980, the average family spent 25 percent of its income on housing. In 1985, expenses on housing rose to 32 percent. Food and drink were the second biggest part of the average family expenses .In 1980, about 18% of the average income was spent on this item. In 1985, the figure grew to 22%. As a result of such increase in the expenses on housing and food, expenses on other items have been reduced from 57% in 1980 to 46% in 1985.
　　Thus, a conclusion can be drawn that as income increases, people can improve their living step by step. But still the average family has to spend a large part of income to meet the essential needs.

　　四、规定情景式作文
　　情景式作文也是一种控制作文出题方式，它一般不给标题，但规定了具体的情景，考生须从情景信息中找到所写文章的中心思想，在此基础上确定文章的标题和段落结构。在写作过程中，考生应按照情景中规定的范围和条件结合自己的经验和知识来休会、想象和发展段落，但不能脱离情景自由发挥。要注意文章的发展必须合乎逻辑情理，段落之间的衔接要连贯和自然。

　　Example
　　Situation: Students have different ways to spend their summer vacations, and you decide to take your summer vacation with your family in the countryside. Your feeling is quite different with the life in the city, so you think about it deeply.
　　A. Time limit: 40 minutes
　　B. Word limit: no less than 150 words
　　C. You essay should be written on the ANSWER SHEET II

　　　　　　　　　　How I Spend My Summer Vacation
　　Our summer vacation begins on July 15th and lasts nearly two months. Considering that my brain needs rest after a period of hard work, I, together with my family, went to our countryside, a very small farmhouse handed down from our forefathers, to spend the summer, Obviously, life in the country is very different from that in the city.
　　Early in the morning I took a stroll along the field side. The air was fresh and pure. With a dog following, sometimes I ran a race in the meadows covered with tall grass. Sometimes I climbed up the hill to see the sun slowly yet steadily emerge out of the eastern horizon. The birds also seemed to have awakened from their dreams, twittering restlessly among the bushes. In order to appreciate the quietness of the country, I gave myself entirely to among the bushes. In order to appreciate the quietness of the country, I gave myself entirely to nature, with a light heart and a happy mind.
　　Sometimes in the afternoon I, in company with my cousins, took a rod and went to the river to fish. It made the household happy when they saw me returning with a basketful of large fresh fish. When night came, I would sit at the door and tell the most marvelous and interesting stories to my cousins, who listened to the tale of wonder with open eyes and mouth.
　　I wish I could enjoy such calm, pure and beautiful rural life forever.
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
第三章　　作文高分标准

　　一、 内容切题，包括提纲的全部内容
　　作文的高分标准首先是要切题。许多考生认为作文题己有要求和提纲，按题目写作不会出问题。但事实往往并非如此，许多考生仍然跑题或扣不准题。有的考生辞不达意，有的考生主题不突出，还有的考生照搬照抄，结果文不对题。
所谓的切题指不偏离主题，提纲的所有内容都是围绕主题来展开的。
　　Example
　　Title: Good Health
　　Outline: 1. Importance of good health
　　2. Ways to ensure a good health
　　文章的主题很显然是谈论健康问题，同时是围绕健康的重要性和怎样保持健康的身体两方面来谈论的。有的考生未经仔细审题便匆匆落笔，结果将文章写成“健康与财富”，不能满足评分标的第一项要求。一篇较好的文章如下：

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Good Health
　　Good health is the best reassurance a person can possess. The world, with all its attractions and wonders, is open to those who have wealth, but they cannot enjoy it unless they have good health. It is very difficult for a man, no matter how rich, powerful or learned he may be, to be happy without good health. But if he enjoys good health, a poor and humble man can be happy. There is no doubt, therefore, that“Good health is the best wealth”
　　The human body is wonderful engine .It is far more delicate than a locomotive .Everyone must be the engineer and fireman of his own body. If well maintained, If it is out of order, its master will suffer. There are a number of useful rules which will ensure good health if people follow them.
　　Cleanliness-The body needs to be kept clean. It should be washed at least once a week in winter and once a day in summer.
Fresh air- One of the chief constituents of the air is oxygen, which is necessary for life. We ought to see that our rooms are always full of fresh air.
　　Food-Care should be taken that the food is wholesome and suited to the constitution.
　　Exercise-The muscle must be all kept exercised, although not to excess.
Sleep-The hours of sleep are very valuable, during which the mind is kept as calm and peaceful as possible. We cannot have good health unless the brain be renewed by sleep.

　　所以一开始短文写作，考生应注意以下几个方面：
　　1．认真审题。先分析题目所包含的内容和信息，把握住出题者的意图，确定文章属于哪一种体裁，思考表达文体和写作手法，以能将主题思想完美表达出来。然后仔细阅读作文要求、提纲或其他相关内容（如图表、图画、数字说明等），注意抓住题目和提纲中的关键词及提纲要点之间的衔接和逻辑关系，进一步考虑怎样组织段落来突出主题。以下面的试题为例：
　　（1） Money is regarded by some people as the most important thing in life…
　　（2） But money can not buy everything…
　　（3） There are people who gamble or cheat to obtain money…

　　对于这类试题，由于标题和每段的主题句都己具备，考生要注意的就是在题目所提示的主题思想基础上，按照各段主题句关键作出的提示和思想进行深入的论述和发挥。很明显，本文属于议论文题材，需要考生发表议论和看法。要注意的是，第一段中“some people”提示论述的是别人的观点，而第二段和第三段谈论的才是自己的观点和看法。如果在阅读要求时不认真，审题不仔细，就会把第一段也写成自己的观点，结果使第二段和第一段的不能自衔接，在逻辑上也出现混乱。

　　2．组织段落，构思选材。段落围绕主题来展开，但各个段落也有主题句和段落中心。主题句即本段的论点，围绕论点提供论据抓住了段落中心，而句子之间或段落之间的承上启下，过渡连贯，句型逻辑等也要同进考虑，对于材料的取舍也应该胸有成竹，避免下笔时无章可循，离题万里。例如：
　　Advertising
　　(1) Nowadays advertisements are found everywhere
　　(2) Advertisements fill almost every minute of a day
　　(3) No one can avoid being influenced by ads.

　　从标题和三段主题句的提示中可以看出，主题思想己很明确，从体裁来看，本文属于叙述文，对生活中的一些事实进行陈述，同时附带自己的看法。文章为三段式结构，段首句均为主题句，要注意找出句子的关键词，它们分别为：第一段主题句中是“everywhere”；第三段主题句中是“every minute”;第三段主题句中为“no one can avoid”。每段主题句之后的扩展句均要围绕这些关键词来展开和发挥，同时考生要注意控制每段字数。

　　二、表达清楚，意义连贯
　　表达清楚包含三方面的内容，一是叙述要清楚，一目了然；二是作者的遣词造句要得当，过渡要连贯平稳；三是主题明确，论点论据展开合理（以时间、过程、空间、详情、列举、概括、对比、因果、分类、定义、发展高潮或综合等方法来展开）。
　　下面这段文章表达不清楚，意义也不连贯：
　　Finding information in a library can be very confusing. There are so many reference books. Their functions are not always clear. One good place to start looking for facts is the card catalogue, and also, the librarian is always ready to answer questions.
　　经改进
　　Finding information in a library can be very confusing. Although there are so many reference books, their functions are not always clear. One good place to start looking for facts is the card catalogue. Also, the librarian is always ready to answer question.

　　三、句式有变化　
　　有的考生从头到尾使用简单句，使整个文章变得平淡无味，一看就是初学者水平。
　　句式有变化指的是一定的意义要用合适的句型来表达，它包含两层意思：一是采用适当的句型来表达内容，包括简单句、并列句、复合句、主动被动句、长句、短句、疑问句、插入语、独立成份等：二是句子之间的逻辑关系要合理，包括并列关系、因果关系、递进关系、转折关系、解释关系、概括关系、顺序关系、让步关系、对比关系、转换关系等（翻译篇中也有所介绍），这些逻辑关系均有适当的关联词（过渡词）来连接，如表示因果关系的就是有accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore , thus, so, in consequence, as a result等。

　　只有在句式上有了变化，才能谈得成为一篇好文章。试比较下面的例子：
　　Example
　　原文: I will never drive a car again.（简单句）I had an accident today.(简单句)I was
　　driving up Fourth Avenue.（简单句）I saw a bright yellow car.(简单句) It was driven by a little old lady.（简单句）She obviously did not see the stop sign.（简单句）I could not stop in time.（简单句）She ran right into me.（简单句）Then she called me a“young hoodlum（流氓）。”（简单句）
　　本文由九个简单组成，读起来单调无味，毫无感染力。
　　改进: I will never drive a car again.（简单句） I had an accident today when I was driving up Fourth Avenue.（复合句）I saw a bright yellow car which was driven by a little old lady.（复合句）She obviously did not see the stop sign, and I could not stop in time.（并列句）She ran right into me. Then she called me a “young hoodlum”.(简单句)
　　原文经改进，句式有了较大的变化，由“简单句、复合句、复合句、并列句、简单句、简单句”这样的顺序组成，读起来觉得内容特别，令人回味，效果完全不一样。

　　四、语言合乎规范
　　语言规范含遣词与造句两方面内容。遣词的标准是：选词准确，词能达意，具体形象，用词丰富，语法正确同时符合英语表达习惯。造句的标准是：句式变化多样，意义与结构完整，意思连贯，逻辑合理，语法正确，同时符合习惯和固定用法。
遣词要注意修辞，避免多次重复同一词汇，可考虑适当使用代词、同义词、近义词、关联词，使表达有变化。同义词的使用是衡量考生语言运用能力的一个尺度。
造句要避免清一色“主＋谓＋宾”结构，适当采用倒装、强调、被动、长短句、疑问句、反问句、复合句、并列句等各种句型，同时要注意尽量使用自己熟悉和有把握的句型。有的考生由于语言基本功不扎实，在写作中便经常出现病句或中文式英语。例如：
　　误：His right arm was broken and could not take part in the game.
　　正：His right arm was broken and he could not take part in the game.
(当and 连接的两个谓分属不同的主语时，and 后谓语的主语不可省略。)
　　误：What did we learn in youth can never be forgotten.
　　正：What we learned in youth can never be forgotten.
（当how, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, who, why用引导主语从句时，从句中应用自然语序，不要与特殊疑问句的语序相混。）
　　误：They have sufficient enough food and water to last them two weeks.
　　正：They have sufficient/enough food and water to last them two weeks.
（sufficient和enough同义，均表示“足够的”，不可同时修饰同一中心词。）
以上错误在考试作文中常见，考生平常写作训练中应加以纠正，避免考试时出现。要　　在40分钟内完成一篇达到要求的高分作文，考生应根据自己的实际情况，参照下列步骤和时间来进行：
　　1. 审题与构思（8－10分钟）
　　2. 展开段落（20－25分钟）
　　3. 检查与修改（5－8分钟）
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
第四章　　如何进行选词

　　对于一些我们认为很熟悉的词，当把它放到句子中时却发现把握不定。由于英语中同义词和近义词异常丰富，同义词之间的意义也有细微的差别，在不同的语言环境中意义还会有所变化。所以你要找到最表达自己的意思的词，就一定不要简单地使用首先想到的词。
　　短文写作的用词是否得当主要应考虑其对文章是否能产生预期的效果，通常应注意以下几点：
　　一、 选用通俗易懂的词
　　考研词汇表中的词汇均为常用词，如果能把这些常用词较熟练地应用到写作中，文章就非常不错。有的考生别出心裁地使用了一些华丽的词藻，结果让评卷人看了反而觉不伦不类，效果适得其反。常用词通俗易懂，直接明了，不常用的一些所谓高级词则抽象难懂，意思难以捉摸，对于考生来说应尽量避免，例如：

常用词 非常用词
make manufacture
buy  purchase
ask interrogate
finish accomplish
begin commence
end  terminate
use utilize
love affection
agree accord
discussion controversy
tell inform
enough  sufficient
speed velocity
car  vehicle
live dwell
open unclose
put  dispose
choice alternative

　　二、 区分具体与抽象的词
　　词从语义上可分以具体与抽象两种类别，例如：
　　　　　　　　　　　　　

抽象 具体
good kind, honest, just, generous
warm-hearted, selfless, friendly
laugh smile, chuckle, snigger.
Titter, chuckle, snigger.
Scientist physicist, biologist, chemist.
Fish shark, turbot, salmon, perch, eel.  
Tree shrub, bush, pollard, oak,
Beech, plane, pine, willow.

　　抽象词意范围大，概括力强，但给人以空洞的感觉，适合于文章的开头和结尾等总结性部分。具体词意义有针对性、个性和精确性，给人以确切的概念，适合用于段落中细节的刻画，论点的阐述以及事物的描写。如果用抽象的词来表达具体的事物，便会给人笼统的感觉：
　　a. 抽象: The man is good.
　　　 具体: The man is selfless.
　　b. 抽象: There are three man in the room.
　　　 具体: There are three little boys in the room.
　　c. 抽象: Mr. Wang is an educator
　　　 具体: Mr. Wang is a history teacher.

　　三、选词要有变化
　　在一篇短文如果同一词汇，特别是动词、副词、形容词，被重复使用，就会使文章读起来单调无味，显得考生词汇量贫乏。英语以同义丰富为特点，用词多样化是必要的修辞手段。常用的用词技巧如：
　　1．善于使用同义词，例如：
　　She is not a friend but a nodding acquaintance.
　　He lived in a small town, and he can never forget the little town where he spent his happy childhood.
　　2．善于使用代词，例如：
　　A scientist draws conclusions by studying the facts he collects.
　　Such symbols as are used to represent chemical elements should be firmly kept in mind.

第五章 如何写好句子

　　从遣词到造句，从造句到段落，一篇文章才能完成，每个句子和段落都有一写的规律可循，都有自己的写作技巧。
　　有的考生写出的文章、句子、语法结构与用词均无太大毛病，但仍然得不到高分，主要原因是句式缺少变化。正如前面所述，如果文章中简单句用得太多，文章便显得无生气，也说明考生英语水平还待提高。下面是造句注意的几个问题：
　　一、避免语法方面的错误
　　1.　结构不完整，例如：
　　　误：We congratulated to him.
　　　正：We congratulated him.
　　　误：Do you like listening to other people to talk?
　　　正：Do you like listening to other talk？
　　2.混淆词义，例如
　　　误：He raised to greet us (raise举起)
　　　正：He rose to greet us.(rise起立)
　　　误: I laid in bed all morning.(lay/laid, laid放)
　　　正：I lay in bed all morning.(lie/lay, lain躺)
　　3．累赘，例如：
　　　原句：In China, Some cities are seriously polluted, and some cities are being polluted.
　　　改进：In China, Some cities are seriously polluted, some being polluted.
　　4.词性误用，例如：
　　　误：Good conditions is very benefit.
　　　正：Good conditions are very beneficial.
　　　误：They don’t feel nerves.
　　　正：They don’t feel nervous.
　　5． 主谓不一致，例如
　　　误：Statistics are a branch of mathematics.
　　　正：Statistics is a branch of mathematics.
　　　误：The variety of pictures at this exhibition please me.
　　　正：The variety of pictures at this exhibition pleases me.
　　6． 动名词与不定式的误用，例如：
　　　误：I hope visiting Beijing again.
　　　正：I hope to visit Beijing again.(hope不接动名词)
　　　误：I ’d rather staying where I am.
　　　正：I’d rather stay where I am.(would rather 要接省略to 的不定式)

　　二、注意句子的完整性
　　一个句子必须完整，就是说在意义和结构上都是完整的，以完整的结构来表达完整的意思，试比较
　　意义不完整：July is the hottest time of the year, and my birthday comes in this month.
　　改进: I was born in the hottest month of the year, July.
　　意思不完整：Mexico City is great and cosmopolitan, with a fine university and ultramodern architecture, and I hope to go there this summer.
　　改进：Mexico City is great and cosmopolitan, with a fine university and ultramodern architecture, I hope to go there this summer.
　　句子的结构完整表现的语法结构上无毛病，试比较：
　　结构不完整：English is a language, language is something used to communicate with other people.
　　改进：English is a language which is used to communicate.
　　结构不完整：A good English class is the all students can speak.
　　改进：A good English class is one in which all the students can speak.

　　三、注意句子的连贯性
　　句子的连贯性是指句子中的词和各组成分非常合理的连接起来，使意思表达非常清楚。试比较：
　　不连贯：He likes to sing, to swim, and table-tennis.
　　改进: He like to sing, to swim, and to play table-tennis.
　　不连贯: He was knocked down by a bicycle, but it was not serious.
　　改进: He was knocked down by a bicycle but was not seriously hurt.
　　时间不连贯: He left the library when his paper is written,
　　改进：He left the library when he had written his paper.

　　四、注意句子的变化性
　　句子的变化性指的是同一种意义可以通过各种变化的句型来表达。一篇文章要使人觉得内容丰富，语言生动有力，就应交叉使用长句、短句、简单句、复合句、并列句、疑问句等，达到形式与内容的统一。例如：
　　1． 简单句型的转换：
　　原句：Victoria is a garden city, with one of the most delightful climates in the world.
　　变化1.A garden city, with one of the most delightful climates in the world, is Victoria.
　　变化2.Victoric, a garden city, has one of the most delightful climates in the world.
　　原句：She knew German very well.
　　变化1.She had a good command of German.
　　变化2.She had a good knowledge of German.
　　2. 复杂句型的转换
　　原句: They struggled forward. They were exhausted. Their steps were dragging, They had to push on.
　　变化: Exhausted, they struggled forward, their steps dragging, but they had to push on.
　　原句: Nothing here indicates where this information came from.
　　变化：There is no indication here where this information came from.
　　3.表现一段文章中的句子变化：
　　Hearing that Russia emphasizes foreign language,(现在分词短语作状语)we have suddenly increased our own offerings.(现在完成的时句型)But too seldom have our schools analyzed our needs.(转折和倒装句例)One school had re-established Latin; another has introduced conversational French for infants.(分号构成两个对比和平行的结构)Seldom have they asked whether Latin and French are as imperative as knowledge of Moslem customs or religion,(倒装结构与后面结构反对)or what languages are needed and for what needs.(what引导名词从句构成问)

　　五、注意句子的扩展性
　　英语中所有结构复杂的句子都是由基本句型扩展而生成的，由基本的陈述句型转成疑问句、感叹句、祈使句、被动句、倒装句等。在基本句型的基础上添加各种修饰成分便使句子得到了扩展，正如村干长出了大枝、小枝、树叶、花朵和果实。试比较：
　　基本句：He grew up.
　　扩展句：Born in a small town in South China in 1937, he grew up to be musician.
　　基本句：The moon was hidden.
　　扩展句：The moon was hidden entirely behind the dark clouds and not a single star could be seen.
　　扩展句可使文章内容具体、更生动、更有活力，但要根据具体情况加以采用。
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
第六章 段落的写作

　　一篇文章可由几个自然段组成。文章中的句子和段落均为文章的中心思想服务，形成一个有机的整体。好的段落必须是意思完整，语义连贯，完全体现文章主旨中心，同时又是层次分明，结构严谨，逻辑关系应用合理的。
　　一、段落的组成
　　一个段落由三部分组成：
　　1．主题句（Topic Sentence）:点出段落的主题（谈论什么）。
　　2．扩展句（Developing Sentence）:说明和支持主题。
　　3．结尾句（Concluding Sentence）:得出结论。
　　　


　　二、段落的主题
　　一篇文章有中心意思，也就是题目。而每个段落则有段落主题，段落主题是为文章中心思想服务的。
　　每个段落只能有一个主题（central idea），它用一个句子加以表达，所以称为主题句。主题提出后需要很多结构严谨的句子来支持和说明，称为扩展句。最后得出一个结论，并用一个结尾句表达。参看下面段落：
　　（主题句）Slavery in the United States existed almost unchanged for 250 years.(扩展句1)During this time, most slaves were not allowed to marry or to raise families.(扩展句2) Usually they were not allowed to learn to read.(扩展句3) It was very dangerous for a slave to travel, since even free Negroes could be kidnapped and sold at any time. (结尾句)Under these conditions, it was almost impossible for them to organize to help each other.

　　三、写好主题句
　　定义：主题句为一个完整的句子，用以概括、叙述和说明该段的主题。
　　位置：主题句一般位于段首，也可置于段尾或段中，考生最好放在段首，这样较易掌握和构思。例如：
　　位于段首：在英文中，大部分段落的第一句便是主题句。开门见山地提出问题，后面的扩展句围绕主题句加以说明、支持、补充和解释。
　　Learning English at college is different from learning English at the middle school. In the middle school, the students are more dependent and passive. But college students must solve most of the problems by themselves. They will have to consult the dictionaries and reference books by themselves and prepare their lessons.
　　位于段尾：主题句位于段尾便于总结全段的内容，给读者以深刻的印象，是写作中的一种演绎方法。
　　Similarly, in order to write successful answers to essay questions on history or anthropology examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions according to some accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly when a student writes a book report for English, or a critiques for politics studies, or a term paper for sociology, style and organization are often as important as content. Clearly, the ability to write well organized, concise paragraphs and essays is essential to a student’s success in almost all university courses.
　　位于段中：位于段中的主题句起承上启下的作用，这类主题句多起转折作用，一般由“but, however, yet, anyhow, nevertheless”等词连接，用于引起下文。
　　What we teach ourselves sometimes indeed in more useful than what we learn from others. Some great men had little or no schooling. But these great men probably studied harder by themselves than most boys do in school. The greatest minds do not necessarily of those who have never been able to distinguish themselves at school, have been very successful in life later. It has been said that Wellington and Napoleon were both dull boys at school, and so were Newton and Albert Einstein.
　　无主题句：有的段落中无主题句，段落的主题思想通过文章内容来提示，这种方法能促使读者对文章内容时行思考和分析，但考生一般不宜在考试中采用这种方法：
　　There came a breeze, then a gust of wind, The wind became stronger. It rattled the windows, turned up the fallen leaves, bent down the trees. Distant rumbling thunder was heard and came nearer and nearer. Large drops of rain began to fall. Flashes of lightening lit up the sky. Thunder roared overhead. Now the rain poured down,

　　写好主题句的方法：
　　1． 主题句要概括一定内容，不要空泛，否则扩展句将难以说明和支持它，例如：
　　空泛：English language is very important.
　　概括：English language is very important in our daily life.
　　空泛：The Olympic Games are exciting.
　　概括：In the Olympic Games the football teams from many countries compete intensely.
　　2． 尽量使用简单句或简洁明了的句子：
　　简洁：Collecting stamps is her hobby.
　　复杂: She likes collecting stamps which is her hobby.
　　简洁: I enjoyed watching Gone with the wind very much.
　　复杂：Gone with the wind was a good film which I enjoyed watching very much.
　　3． 主题句应该做到句子完整和表达的主题思想完整：
　　不完整：How to write a composition.
　　完整：How to write a composition is not an easy thing to talk about.
　　不完整：If the weather was fine.
　　完整：If it was fine, we would have had a good time.
　　4． 写好主题句中的关键词。
　　关键词是直接表达主题的词汇，它决定段落的内容和展开的方法，引导整个段落的发
展，例如：
　　There are several ways to boil the water.
　　The task can be finished in three steps.
　　There is a new method to reduce the cost.

　　四、写好扩展句和段落
　　围绕主题句展开，支持、说明和阐述主题句的句子便是扩展句。扩展句紧扣主题句中的关键词而展开，句子与句子之间逻辑清楚，上下转承结合得当，简明扼要，重点突出。一般来说，每个自然段除了主题句与结尾句之外，还包含了3－6个扩展句。所以，写好了扩展句便基本上完成一个自然段落。
　　做题时，一旦定下了主题和关键词，作者便按照自己的思路来组织段落中的句子，句子之间要具有连贯性，就必须由一系列的逻辑关系构成，例如：并列关系，因果关系，递进关系，转折关系，解释关系，概括关系，顺序关系，让步关系，对照比较关系，转换关系等等，这些逻辑关系可由一系列的过渡词（transitional words）来完成。过渡词在句子与句子之间、段落与段落之间起到承上启下的作用，使句子或段落之间的衔接自然、连贯，逻辑合理，结构严谨，故极为重要。
　　例如：
　　构成时间关系的过渡词有：first, in the first place, since then, thereafter, there fore, lately, later, meanwhile, at last等。
　　构成空间关系的过渡词有：before, behind, below, between, beyond, farther, in front of , near to, next to, over, under, up, close to等。
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
五、写好扩展句和段落必须注意的事项和方法
　　1． 避免写出与主题不相关的句子。例如：
　　There are several ways to improve our English writing skills and keeping a diary in English is surely one of them. Compared with other forms of writing, it is shorter and takes less time. My mother advised me to write diary when I was very young.（本句去掉意思更为合理）It can help us cultivate the habit of thinking in English. If we can keep this practice, we will gradually learn how to express ourselves in English.
　　2． 混合使用简单句、并列句、复合句和短语等。
　　如果段落中都是一种结构的句子，虽然都能支持主题句，但内容仍读起来单调。句式有变化，文章读起来才有活力，令人回味。
There are also many quite, private things that I enjoy doing (主从复合句)I would spend a whole day reading a book, and I sometime stay up late at night reading a good novel.(并列句)When I am tired of physical activities, I may find a good movies or a light TV program very entertaining.(主从复合句) In short, I like to do many different kinds of things, depending on the mood I am in and the kind of people I am in and the kind of people I am around.(简单句，分词短语作状语)
　　3．按时间顺序（time order）或空间顺序（space order）来完成段落。
按照时间和空间的顺序来组织段落是记叙文常用的方法。有时两种方法单独使用，有时混合使用。例如：
　　（1）按时间顺序
　　We had a hard time getting Peter out of the well he had fallen into. First we fashioned a rope by linking our belts together. Then we lowered it to Peter, telling him to grasp the end. After he had hold of the belt-rope, we began to pull him slowly, inch by inch, out of the well. During his ascent, no one dared speak a word. Finally we could grasp his arms, and with a shout of relief, we pulled him out onto the grassy band.
　　(2)按空间顺序
　　Down the middle of the valley runs a clear, fast stream in which one may fish. In the low land along the stream are the farmlands; beyond them are the pastures. Behind the tops of the first hills are the big mountains. At the very top in the pure, brown rock of EI Ermitano Mountain, which shows snow until the middle of summer. Flowers cover the pasturelands in season.
　　空间顺序法常用的过渡词有：
　　beyond, above, under, nearby, outside, in here, across, close to, on(to)the left(right), ahead of, in front of, above, across, across, from, adjacent to, against, around, at the bottom, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond, close at hand, close to down, far, farther, in the center of, in the distance, in the middle of, nearby, near to, next to, on the opposite side, opposite to, on top of ,　over, under, up等。
　　4．定义法（definition）
　　当段落的主题阐述“是什么”（What is）时，便可用定义法。词典中的词条解释便是定义法最好的例子：
define→State precisely the meaning of sth;
dictionary→a book listing and explaining the words of a language;
example→fact, thing, etc. which illustrates or represents a general rule;
hope→feeling of expectation and desire.
　　定义法用一段话来解释说明某事物的性质和特征等，定义的对象可以是一个抽象的概念或具体的事物，包括性质、特征、结构、用途、行为、原理、来源等等。例如：
　　What is honesty? Honesty means speaking the truth and being fair and upright in act. Honesty is a good virtue. He who lies cheats is dishonest. Those who gain fortunes, not by hard labor, but by other means are dishonest.
　　定义法常用法表达方法有：
　　what is …, to be defined as, to refer to, the definition of …is, to be used to describe, in a very real sense, in a limited sense, this is, this means, be explained, state that, in other words. namely等。
　　5．因果法（cause and effect）
　　当段落的主题要解释“为什么”（Why）时，便可采用“因果法”。因果法根据事物的原因（cause）推导出来结果（effect），它以事实（fact）和证据（evidence）为根据，前后过程合乎逻辑和常理，因果关系可分以前因后果，前果后因，一因一果和多果多因多种式。考研作文中常用到一因多果和多因一果形式。例如：
　　（1） 一因多果：
　　It was the end of my exhausting first day as waitress in a busy New York restaurant.(因)
　　Cap had gone away, my apron was stained, my feet ached. (果)The loaded trays I carried felt heavier.(果)Weary and discouraged, I didn’t seem able to do anything right,(果)As I made out a complicated check for a family with several children who had changed their ice-cream order a dozen times, I was ready to quit .(果)
　　一段第一句为主题句，其余的句子为扩展句，四个扩展句的内容是由主题句中“exhausting”一种原因所产生的多种果。
　　（2）一果多因：
　　Health is a condition of wisdom, and a sign of cheerfulness.(果)If a man is in poor health, he will have many troubles and suffer a great deal.(因)He has to spend much time and money to go to a hospital for examinations and treatment.(因)In addition, his relatives and friends have to take care of him,(因)In this sense, poor health brings trouble to others as well as to the patient himself.(因)As we know, happiness and success depend on achievements and progress.(因)Good health is one of the many factors that lead to achievement and success, and the basis of them is health.(因)
　　本段的第一句为主题句，提出作者的观点，即“健康是智慧的条件，快乐的标志”，后面的扩展句说明这种观点的原因，证明为什么这个结论是正确的。
because, since, as, seeing that, the reason why…because of, on account of due to, so, thus, hence, therefore, accordingly, consequently, so that, as a result of, in consequence of, result in, result from, lead to, so…as to, owing to, to have an effect on, for the reason, in this way等。
　　6．比较与对比法（comparison contrast）
　　当段落的主题要指出两件以上事物的相同，（similarities）或相异（differences）之处时，便可采用比较或对比的方法。
　　“比较”阐述所比对象的相似之处：“对比”阐述所比对象不同之处。比较和对比一般采用两种方法来组织：1）对两项或多项事的异同之处逐点进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，B1，A2，B2；A3，B3…。2）对两项或多项事物的异同之处逐项进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，A2，A3;B1,B2,B3; …。例如
　　（1） 比较

　　　　　　　　　　　　　Paragraph and Essay
　　Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally. For example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic sentence or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence. In the essay the first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the topic sentence. Similarly, the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the ideas presented in the introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator-whether a restatement, conclusion, or observation-ends the paragraph. The essay, too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying completion: the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may be observed in modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparble in structure.
　　本段文章对段落和文章在结构上相似之处作了细致的比较，方法为：A1，B1；A2，B2；A3，B3；…。

　　（2）对比：

　　There is an essential difference between a new story, as understood by a newspaperman or a wire-service writer, and the newsmagazine story, The chief purpose of the conventional news story is to tell what happened. It starts with the most important information and continues into increasingly inconsequential details, not only because the reader may not read beyond the first paragraph but because an editor working on galley proofs a few minutes before press time likes to be able to cut feely from the end of the story. A newsmagazine is very different. It is written to be read consecutively from beginning to end, and each of its stories is designed, following the critical theories of Edgar Allen Poe, to create one emotional effect. The news, what happened that week, may be told in the beginning, the middle, or the end ; for the purpose is not to throw information at the reader but to reduce him into reading the whole story, and into accepting the dramatic(and often political)point being made.
　　本段文章就传统新闻报道和新闻杂志报道的不同之处进行了鲜明的对比，采用A1，A2，A3；B1，B2，B3；…的方法。

　　　　　　　　　　Railways and Automobile Roads
　　Some people say that railways are more important than automobile roads. But in my opinion, automobile roads and railways complement each other. Railways do not touch small places , while automobile roads can be constructed to reach every place, even villages situated in remote corners of the country. Railways are constructed only for the trains, but roads will prove equally useful for bicycles, carriages and other kinds of vehicles. The cost of building automobile roads is also such lower than that of building railways.
　　本段文章对铁路的不用途作了实际的对比，以证明自己对“铁路比公路重要”的看法不同见解，采用方法为：A1，B1；A2，B2；A3，B3；…。

　　比较和对比法常用的过渡词有：
　　like, likewise, unlike, similarly, in the same way, on the other hand, compare with, by comparison, in contrast to, on the contrary, but, so despite, yet, instead, while, whereas, however, nevertheless, although, even though, conversely, different from, equally important, in spite of. instead, in the same manner, still等。

　　7． 举例或例证法（example and illustration）
　　当段落的主题为一理论性论点时，就需要举例或例证来加以支持，以说服读者。举例和例证使抽象的概念具体化，而所举的事例也应该具有充分的说服力，同时逻辑严密。例如：
　　In many countries cigarette smoking is restricted in many ways. For example. in Britain, cigarettes are not allowed to be advertised on TV or radio; the American government requires manufacturers to print the warning that smoking is dangerous to health on every package of cigarettes; in our country a regulation is being drafted banning the sale of tobaccoproducts to people under eighteen. There is no doubt that the world-wide anti-smoking campaigns will make more and more people be aware of the danger of smoking and become conscious fighters for cleaner air.

　　本段在首句，即主题句中提出“在许多国家吸烟被以各种方式加以限制”的观点，接着“for example ”引出三个例证一“for instance”等加以引导，但也可在主题句之后直接列举，例如：

　　Wealth does always not go hand in hand with happiness. Wealth may encourage those weak-willed persons to be addicted to some harmful habits such as drug-taking or gambling, and bring about their own ruin, Also, a person may lose his reason and go astray if he is passionately devoted to seeking wealth. Therefore, one can never count on wealth to achieve happiness.
　　本段主题句提出“财富并不总幸福共存”的观点，接着直接举出两个例子来证明自己的论点，结尾得出结论。

　　举例或例法常用的过渡词有：
　　for example, for instance, for one thing, for another, to illustrate, one example is, to begin with, first, second, furthermore, besides, in addition, moreover, finally, in conclusion, in summary, also, a case in point, as an illustration, incidentally, namely, that is等。

　　8． 分类法（classification）
　　按性质、特征、形态、功用、成因等等属性将某一种人或事物进行分类而发展段落的方法先由主题句提出分类，再由扩展句一一加以陈述和说明。例如，球类运动一概念，按类别来分类就有篮球、足球、乒乓球、羽毛球、棒球等等，例如：
　　Examinations are of three kinds. One is the machine-scored“objective”type. In an objective
test, the students answer questions by deciding on the best choice among a number of alternatives give. Another is the“completion”type. This kind of examination requires the students to add a word or phrase to a sentence. And the third type is essay examination, in which the students are asked to write a composition on a given topic. All these kinds of examinations are designed to reveal what a student may have learned in any particular course.
　　分类法常用的过渡词用：
　　to divide…into, to classify…into, group…into, to fall into classes, there are…kinds(types, groups, classes, categories, sorts ) of, according to, in terms of, depending on, at the level of等。

　　
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
9． 综合法（combination of methods）
　　同时在段落发展中应用以上介绍的几种不同手段即为综合法。事实上，在多数情况
下，段落写作都是各种不同方法的综合应用，很少单纯采用一种方法来展开段落或文章，常见的为两三种方法混合使用。例如：
　　Example 1
　　Increasing your vocabulary can help you in a number of ways .(顺序法)You will discover that knowing synonyms, for example.(举例法)will decrease the amount of repetition in your compositions and make them more enjoyable to read. And if a teacher enjoys reading your paper, he may even give you a better grade. Also, an increased vocabulary will make your own reading more enjoyable. You will find it is much easier to follow the ideas in your history textbook or the newspaper when you do not have to continually run to the dictionary to look up unknown word, you will become more eager to read and not as discouraged when you do come across an unknown word.(因果法)As a result, you will read faster and more intelligently, become more knowledgeable, and hence better informed about the world around you. Strange as it may seem, vocabulary study can make you a better person.
　　段落第一句为主题句，指出“增加词汇时可以使你在多方面受益”，接着按顺序列举“这些好处”，最后得结论，所以段落综合使用了顺序法举例法和因果法。
　　Example 2
　　Poetry is branch of literature(定义法)which explores ideas, emotions, and experiences in a distinctive form and style. Poetry, sometimes called“verse”depends greatly on the natural rhythms and sounds of language for its special effects. Poetry even more than prose,(比较法)depends on precise and suggestive wording. In other words, a poem says much in little space. Poetry differs from prose (比较法)in obvious ways, also. Most often (举例法)the first word of every line begins with a capital letter, even in the middle of a sentence. Poems sometimes contain rhythms, and often they have a particular rhythm, like music.(比较法)
　　段落第一句主题句对“poetry”作出了定义，接着用对比法将“prose”,“music”作了比较，同时用举例说明“poetry”与“prose”的最大区别。所以段落的发展采用了定义法、比较法和举例法三种方法。

　　Example 3
　　During the American War of Independence,(顺序法)women were involved in the active fighting in three way.(举例法)as members of a distinct branch of the Continental Amy, referred to as“Women of the Army”,women staffed field hospitals and acted as military support in such roles as water carriers. In an emergency, women water carriers, who had plenty to opportunity to observe the firing of cannons, In an emergency, women water carriers, who had plenty of opportunity to observe the firing of cannons, could replace a wounded comrade. The second(举例法)way that women were involved in active fighting was as regular troop members who wore men’s uniforms and fought side by side with their male counterparts. Theoretically（因果法）women were not supposed to be recruited into the Continental Army, but if a woman was a good soldier, no one made an issue of sex at a time when the army was so short of soldiers that boys not yet in their teens were also being recruited in violation of rules. Third.(举例法)women were occasional fighters affiliated with local militia companies or committees of safety formed to protect the local community.
　　段落第一句（主题句）指出“在美国独立战争期间，妇女以三种方式参与积极的战斗”，接着按顺序列举了这三种方式，在第二种方式中解释了“为什么妇女要被征募参加大陆军”，使用了因果法。所以本段使用了三种方法；顺序法、举例法和因果法。
　　Example1
　　Physical exercise is also important for our mind. Exercise is effective as a tranquilizer. Tests have show that a 15-minute walk can have a more tranquilizing effect than the most used tranquilizer on the market today. It has been demonstrated that the most used less from anxiety and are able to work harder. In a word, physical recreation can help toughen our competitive nature.
　　本段中结尾句主题句相呼应，给全段一个结论。
　　Example2
　　English is spoken by pilots and airport control operators on all the airways of the world. Over 70 percent of the world’s mail is written in English. More than 60 percent of the world’s radio programs are in English. Cleary English is an international language.
　　本段中结尾也是主题句，对全段作出结论。
　　Lions belong to the cat family. In many ways they are like the cats we see every day. They have sharp claws hidden under soft cushion. They make no noise when they walk. They have sharp teeth with which they tear their food to pieces, They like to sleep through the day and to hunt at night. A lion will lie for hours by a spring or river, waiting for the deer to come to drink in the same way that a cat watches over a hole of the mouse till mouse comes out.
　　本段以扩展句替结尾句。
　　常用的结尾句句型有：
　　In short…; In conclusion…;
　　To sum up…; Consequently…;
　　From the point of view, …; In a word…;
　　There fore…; Thus, …
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
第七章 文章的完成

　　第一节　　作文写作文体

　　对于考生来说，了解一点作文考试常用的文体知识很有必要。文章文体一般分为叙述文（Narration）、议论文（Argumentation）、说明文（Exposition）和描写文（Description）。在实际写作中，这几种文体常常交叉使用，相辅相成，但主体仍以一种为主，其他为辅。从考研作文试题情况来看，主要为议论文，出题形式常常是针对某一事物或现象让考生提出自己的看法。
　　议论文（Argumentation）
　　作者对某一问题或事件直接间接地进行分析评论，表明自己的立场、观点、态度、主张，这就是议论。它常常用于学术论文，各种评论、短文、杂文、辩论等方面，应用广泛。
　　议论文的写作要注意三个要素：1.提出论点；2.组织论据，进行论证；3.得出结论。常的论证方法包括夹议法、举例法、比较对照当、因果法、逻辑推量法（包括归纳法和演绎法）。可以从正在论证，也可以用反证进进行反驳。例如：
　　Example 1
　　Television-the Wonder of Electronics
　　论点　　 As an art, television brings theatre and other cultural events into home. Its influence on the life of average people is incalculable :it can influence their thoughts, their likes and.
　　组织论据　dislikes, their speech, and even their dress. As an industry, TV provides.
　　进行论证　jobs for hundreds of thousands who make TV sets and broadcasting equipment. It also provides work for actors, technicians, and others who put on programs, In addition, it can add to people’s store of knowledge. Education TV stations offer teaching in various subjects ranging from home nursing to art appreciation Through advertising, TV helps business and manufacturers sell their products to millions of persons.
　　得出结论　So TV the modern wonder of electronics, not only bring the world into home in sight and sound, also bring some other benefits to people.
　　Example1
　　Physical Exercise and Mental Advantage
　　论点　　　Physical exercise develops will.
Nobody can succeed at anything if the does not put his will.
　　以列举法　into it. A man, who wishes to lift 300 pounds, can
　　组织论据 do it, if he has a strong will. Some long
　　进行论证　distance runners win after practicing day after day, year after year . A great many athletes get good reputation through nothing but a strong will which helps them realize their goals.
　　论点　　　Physical exercise develops judgment. There are many people who unable to make decision when
　　以列举法　matters come to them. This is due to the fact that
　　组织论据　their judgment is not sound. An expert runner knows
　　进行论证　when he should run faster and when slower. A table tennis player can use different strategies to defeat his opponent.
　　论点　　　Physical exercise develops self-confidence. Many persons do not trust themselves. As things come before
　　以列举法　them, they usually hesitate, not knowing whether of not
　　组织论据　they have the ability to perform them. So a great deal
　　进行论证　of time is usually wasted and matters are left unattended. This is because these people have no self-confidence. An expert athlete believes that he has had great ability in a certain sport and that he can compete with others in that sport. He does not hesitate and try his best to win the championship.
　　得出结论　Thus we see will, judgment and self-confidence can be developed by physical exercise.
　　(从上面两例我们可以看出，作者以段落主题句提出论点，以扩展句组织论扭，进行论证，以结尾句进行总结，得了结论。这与前面所说的段落发展方法是一致的。)

　　第二节 文章段落的句子的“启、承、转、合”

　　在一篇文章中，各自然段，各句子都为文章的中心思想服务，各段落之间，句子与句子之间存在着某种逻辑关系。文章段落之间的逻辑关系主要由过渡词来完成，在修辞中称为启、承、转、合。“启”就是开头“承”是承接，“转”是转折，“合”是综合或总结，一篇文章与一段文章一样都有“启、承、转、合”关系。例如
　　Ways to Buy Things
　　
　　开头段(启) In daily life, people need to buy thing and　services. Some people to prefer pay money for what they need. Other people trade goods for what they need.
　　Each of the two ways has its advantages.
　　As we all know, money is a convenient means of exchange. First of all, it is easy to carry about, easy to transfer from one person to another, from one place to
　　扩展段(承)another. When we go shopping we needn’t carry loads of
goods with us. Another advantage to paying money for the things people need is that
money enables people to measure correctly the values of all kinds of goods and services: tea, milk, salt, matches, furniture, dishes, cloth, automobiles, houses, the time and energy spent by a doctor or farmer or engineer on his work, the skill possessed by workers and specialists of different kinds. In addition, money can easily be stored in a safe place for use at some future time without loss in its value.
However, there are cases in which people have to trade goods for the things they need, For example, a person
　　扩展段(转) who needs something badly and happens to be penniless, what
should he do? A good solution for him is to trade the goods he has for the things he needs. For another example, a person needs something and its owner is reluctant to sell it unless he gets the thing he wants. In such case, the person has to trade goods for what he needs. In direct transaction of goods, the real value of the goods transacted is not measured in terms of money but by the buyer’s appreciation of the goods. The price of the goods is usually lower because no service or any other person is involved.
　　结尾段(合)As for me, I prefer to pay money for the things I need,
because I have money and I have no goods to trade for other goods.
　　1.段落连接
　　(1)“启”，常用于引导文章开头的过度词有：
It is often said that…
Generally speaking…
As the proverb says…
It goes without saying that…
It is clear/obvious that…
Mary people often ask …
　　(2)“承”，常用于第一年扩展段开渡词有：
It is true that…
Everybody know that…
It can be easily proved that…
No one can deny that…
One thing which is equally important to the above mentioned is…
The chief reason why …is that …
We must recognize that…
There is no doubt that…
I am of the opinion that…
This can expressed as follows…
To take…for an example (instance) …
Therefore we should realize that …
We have reason to believe that…
We know that…
What is more serious is that…
　　(3)“转”，常用于第二个扩展段开头的过渡词有：
Another special consideration in this case is that …
Besides, we should not neglect that…
However, …
But the problem is not so simple, …
Therefore…
But it is a pity that…
On the other hand, …
I do not believe that…
Perhaps you’ll ask why…
This may be true, but we still have a problem with regard to…
Though we are in basic agreement with …
The trouble seems that…
Yet differences will be found, that’s why I feel that…
So long as you regard this as reasonable, you many…
　　(4)“合”，常用结尾段的过度词有：
In a word, …
In sum, …
In conclusion, …
From this point of view, …
On account of this we can find that …
The result is dependent on …
Therefore, these findings reveal the following information…
Thus, this is the reason why we must…
　　2.句子连接
　　(1)“启”
in the first place at present
currently it goes without saying that
lately first
first of all now
presently firstly
generally recently
in the beginning to begin with
to start with in general
　　(2)“承”
after a few days after a while
also at any arte
at the same time besides
by this time certainly
consequently for example
for instance for this purpose
from now on furthermore
in addition in addition to…
in fact in other words
in particular in the same manner
incidentally indeed
meanwhile moreover
no doubt obviously
of course particularly
second secondly
similarly so
soon still
then third
thirdly truly
unlike… what is more
　　(3)“转”
after all all the same
anyway at the same time
but by this time
conversely despite…
especially… fortunately
however in other words
in particular in spite of…
in the same way likewise
luckily nevertheless
no doubt not withstanding …
on the contrary on the other hand
otherwise perhaps…
unfortunately unlike…
whereas… yet
nonetheless as a matter of fact
　　(4)“合”
above all accordingly
as a consequence as a result
as has been noted as I have said
at last at length
by and large briefly
by doing so consequently
eventually finally
hence in brief
in conclusion in short
on the whole therefore
thus to speak frankly
to sum up to summarize
indeed surely
to conclude obviously
certainly truly
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8楼2005-08-12 11:11:21
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
第八章 英语作文常用句型

一、用于驳性和比较性论文
1. In general, I don’t agree with
2. In my opinion, this point of view doesn’t hold water.
3. The chief reason why… is that…
4.There is no true that…
5. It is not true that…
6. It can be easily denied than…
7. We have no reason to believe that…
8. What is more serious is that…
9. But it is pity that…
10. Besides, we should not neglect that…
11. But the problem is not so simple. Therefore…
12. Others may find this to be true, but I believer that…
13. Perhaps I was question why…
14. There is a certain amount of truth in this, but we still have a problem with regard to…
15. Though we are in basic agreement with…,but
16. What seems to be the trouble is…
17. Yet differences will be found, that’s why I feel that…
18. It would be reasonable to take the view that …, but it would be foolish to claim that…
19. There is in fact on reason for us so believe that…
20. What these people fail to consider is that…
21. It is one thing to insist that… , it is quite another to show that …
22. Wonderful as A is , however, it has its own disadvantages too.
23. The advantages of B are much greater than A.
24. A’s advantage sounds ridiculous when B’s advantages are taken into consideration.

二、用于描写图表和数据
1. It has increased by three times as compared with that of 1998.
2. There is an increase of 20% in total this year.
3. It has been increased by a factor of 4since 1995.
4. It would be expected to increase 5 times.
5. The table shows a three times increase over that of last year.
6. It was decreased twice than that of the year 1996.
7. The total number was lowered by 10%.
8. It rose from 10-15 percent of the total this year.
9. Compared with 1997, it fell from 15 to 10 percent.
10. The number is 5 times as much as that of 1995.
11. It has decreased almost two and half times, compared with…

三、用于解释性和阐述性论说文
1.Everybody knows that…
2.It can be easily proved that…
3. It is true that…
4. No one can deny that
5. One thing which is equally important to the above mentioned is…
6. The chief reason is that…
7. We must recognize that…
8. There is on doubt that…
9. I am of the opinion that…
10. This can be expressed as follows;
11. To take …for an example…
12. We have reason to believe that
13. Now that we know that…
14. Among the most convincing reasons given, one should be mentioned…
15. The change in …largely results from the fact that
16. There are several causes for this significant growth in…,first …,second …,finally…
17. A number of factors could account for the development in…
18. Perhaps the primary reason is…
19. It is chiefly responsible of…
20. The reasons for…are complicated, And probably they are found in the fact…
21. Here are several possible reasons, excerpt that…
22. Somebody believes/argues/holds/insists/thinks that…
23. It is not simple to give the reason for this complicated phenomenon…
24. Different people observes it in different ways.

四、用于文章的开头
1. As the proverb says…
2. It goes without saying tan…
3. Generally speaking…
4. It is quite clear than because…
5. It is often said that …
6. Many people often ask such question:“…？”
7. More and more people have come to realize…
8. There is no doubt that…
9. Some people believe that…
10. These days we are often told that, but is this really the case?
11. One great man said that…
12. Recently the issue of… has been brought to public attention.
13. In the past several years there has been…
14. Now it is commonly held that… but I doubt whether…
15. Currently there is a widespread concern that…
16. Now people in growing number are coming to realize that…
17. There is a general discussion today about the issue of …
18. Faced with…, quite a few people argue that…, but other people conceive differently.

五、用于文章的结尾
1. from this point of view…
2. in a word…
3. in conclusion…
4. on account of this we can find that…
5. the result is dependent on…
6. therefore, these findings reveal the following information:
7. thus, this is the reason why we must…
8. to sum up …
9. as far as…be concerned, I believe that…
10. It is obvious that…
11. There is little doubt that…
12. There is no immediate solution to the problem of …, but …might be helpful
13. None of the solutions is quite satisfactory. The problem should be examined in a new way.
14. It is high time that we put considerable emphasis on…
15. Taking into account all these factors, we may safely reach the conclustion that…

六、用于论证和说明
1. As it is described that…
2. It has been illustrated that…
3. It provides a good example of…
4. We may cite another instance of…
5. History man provides us with the examples of…
6. A number of further facts may be added…
7. The situation is not unique, it is typical of dozens I have heard.
8. A recent investigation indicate that…
9. According to the statistics provided …
10. According to a latest study, it can be predicted…
11. There is no sufficient evidence to show that…
12. All available evidence points to the fact that…
13. Examples given leads me to conclude that…
14. It reveals the unquestionable fact that…
15. The idea may be proved by facts…
16. All the facts suggest that…
17. No one can deny the fact that…
18. We may face the undeniable fact that…
文都考研授权中国教育在线发布以上信息，未经许可，不得转载！
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9楼2005-08-12 11:12:03
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sunmlw

铁杆木虫 (著名写手)
斑竹加分!!!!!!!!!!
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10楼2005-08-13 10:53:59
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