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Cambridge2010Artificial Intelligence - Foundations Of Computational Agents
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Contents Preface xiii I Agents in theWorld: What Are Agents and How Can They Be Built? 1 1 Artificial Intelligence and Agents 3 1.1 What Is Artificial Intelligence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 A Brief History of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.3 Agents Situated in Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 Knowledge Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.5 Dimensions of Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.6 Prototypical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.7 Overview of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1.8 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.9 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2 Agent Architectures and Hierarchical Control 43 2.1 Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.2 Agent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.3 Hierarchical Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2.4 Embedded and Simulated Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.5 Acting with Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.6 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 vii viii Contents 2.7 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 II Representing and Reasoning 69 3 States and Searching 71 3.1 Problem Solving as Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.2 State Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3 Graph Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.4 A Generic Searching Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.5 Uninformed Search Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.6 Heuristic Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.7 More Sophisticated Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.8 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 3.9 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 3.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4 Features and Constraints 111 4.1 Features and States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.2 PossibleWorlds, Variables, and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.3 Generate-and-Test Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 4.4 Solving CSPs Using Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4.5 Consistency Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 4.6 Domain Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 4.7 Variable Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 4.8 Local Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 4.9 Population-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 4.10 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 4.11 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.12 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 5 Propositions and Inference 157 5.1 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 5.2 Propositional Definite Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 5.3 Knowledge Representation Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 5.4 Proving by Contradictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 5.5 Complete Knowledge Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 5.6 Abduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 5.7 Causal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 5.8 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 5.9 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 5.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Contents ix 6 Reasoning Under Uncertainty 219 6.1 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 6.2 Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 6.3 Belief Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 6.4 Probabilistic Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 6.5 Probability and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 6.6 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 6.7 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 6.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 III Learning and Planning 281 7 Learning: Overview and Supervised Learning 283 7.1 Learning Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 7.2 Supervised Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 7.3 Basic Models for Supervised Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 7.4 Composite Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 7.5 Avoiding Overfitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 7.6 Case-Based Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 7.7 Learning as Refining the Hypothesis Space . . . . . . . . . . . 327 7.8 Bayesian Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 7.9 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 7.10 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 7.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 8 Planning with Certainty 349 8.1 Representing States, Actions, and Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 8.2 Forward Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 8.3 Regression Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 8.4 Planning as a CSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 8.5 Partial-Order Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 8.6 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 8.7 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 8.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 9 Planning Under Uncertainty 371 9.1 Preferences and Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 9.2 One-Off Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 9.3 Sequential Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 9.4 The Value of Information and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 9.5 Decision Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 9.6 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 9.7 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 9.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 x Contents 10 Multiagent Systems 423 10.1 Multiagent Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 10.2 Representations of Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 10.3 Computing Strategies with Perfect Information . . . . . . . . . 430 10.4 Partially Observable Multiagent Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . 433 10.5 Group Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 10.6 Mechanism Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 10.7 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 10.8 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 10.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 11 Beyond Supervised Learning 451 11.1 Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 11.2 Learning Belief Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 11.3 Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 11.4 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 11.5 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 11.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 IV Reasoning About Individuals and Relations 489 12 Individuals and Relations 491 12.1 Exploiting Structure Beyond Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 12.2 Symbols and Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 12.3 Datalog: A Relational Rule Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 12.4 Proofs and Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 12.5 Function Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 12.6 Applications in Natural Language Processing . . . . . . . . . . 520 12.7 Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 12.8 Complete Knowledge Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 12.9 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 12.10 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 12.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 13 Ontologies and Knowledge-Based Systems 549 13.1 Knowledge Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 13.2 Flexible Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 13.3 Ontologies and Knowledge Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 13.4 Querying Users and Other Knowledge Sources . . . . . . . . . 576 13.5 Implementing Knowledge-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 13.6 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 13.7 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 13.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Contents xi 14 Relational Planning, Learning, and Probabilistic Reasoning 597 14.1 Planning with Individuals and Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 14.2 Learning with Individuals and Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 14.3 Probabilistic Relational Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 14.4 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 14.5 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 14.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 V The Big Picture 623 15 Retrospect and Prospect 625 15.1 Dimensions of Complexity Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 15.2 Social and Ethical Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 15.3 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 A Mathematical Preliminaries and Notation 633 A.1 Discrete Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 A.2 Functions, Factors, and Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 A.3 Relations and the Relational Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Bibliography 637 Index 653 |
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