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Cambridge2011年Planetary Surface Processes
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Preface page xv Acknowledgments xix 1 The grand tour 1 1.1 Structure of the Solar System 2 1.1.1 Major facts of the Solar System 3 1.1.2 Varieties of objects in the Solar System 4 1.2 C lassification of the planets 5 1.2.1 R etention of planetary atmospheres 6 1.2.2 Geologic processes on the terrestrial planets and moons 7 1.3 Planetary surfaces and history 9 1.3.1 T he Moon 10 1.3.2 Mercury 14 1.3.3 Venus 15 1.3.4 Mars 16 1.3.5 Jupiter’s Galilean satellites 18 1.3.6 T itan 20 1.3.7 T he Earth 22 Further reading 24 2 T he shapes of planets and moons 25 2.1 T he overall shapes of planets 26 2.1.1 N on-rotating planets: spheres 26 2.1.2 R otating planets: oblate spheroids 27 2.1.3 T idally deformed bodies: triaxial ellipsoids 30 2.1.4 A scaling law for planetary figures? 34 2.1.5 C enter of mass to center of figure offsets 34 2.1.6 T umbling moons and planets 35 2.2 Higher-order topography: continents and mountains 36 2.2.1 How high is high? 36 2.2.2 E levation statistics: hypsometric curves 38 Box 2.1 Topographic roughness 40 Contents viii Contents 2.2.3 Where are we? Latitude and longitude on the planets 41 2.3 Spectral representation of topography 44 Further reading 47 Exercises 47 3 Strength versus gravity 49 3.1 T opography and stress 49 Box 3.1 Collapse of topography on a strengthless planet 51 3.2 Stress and strain: a primer 52 3.2.1 Strain 52 3.2.2 Stress 53 3.2.3 Stress and strain combined: Hooke’s law 55 3.2.4 Stress, strain, and time: viscosity 57 3.3 L inking stress and strain: Jeffreys’ theorem 58 3.3.1 E lastic deformation and topographic support 58 3.3.2 E lastic stress solutions and a limit theorem 60 3.3.3 A model of planetary topography 62 3.4 T he nature of strength 64 3.4.1 R heology: elastic, viscous, plastic, and more 64 3.4.2 L ong-term strength 64 Box 3.2 The ultimate strength of solids 65 3.4.3 C reep: strength cannot endure 74 3.4.4 Planetary strength profiles 80 3.5 Mechanisms of topographic support 82 3.5.1 Plastic strength: Jeffreys’ limit again 82 3.5.2 Viscous relaxation of topography 82 3.5.3 T he topographic advantages of density differences: isostatic support 87 3.5.4 Dynamic topography 90 3.5.5 F loating elastic shells: flexural support of topographic loads 91 3.6 C lues to topographic support 93 Box 3.3 Flexure of a floating elastic layer 94 3.6.1 F lexural profiles 96 3.6.2 A nomalies in the acceleration of gravity 97 3.6.3 Geoid anomalies 99 Box 3.4 The ambiguous lithosphere 100 Further reading 100 Exercises 101 4 T ectonics 104 4.1 What is tectonic deformation? 104 4.1.1 R heologic structure of planets 105 4.1.2 O ne- and multiple-plate planets 107 Contents ix 4.2 Sources of tectonic stress 108 4.2.1 E xternal sources of tectonic stress 108 4.2.2 Internal sources of tectonic stress 109 4.3 Planetary engines: heat sources and heat transfer 113 4.3.1 A ccretional heat 113 4.3.2 T idal dissipation in planetary interiors 114 4.3.3 Heat transfer by thermal conduction and radiogenic heat production 116 4.3.4 T hermal convection and planetary heat transfer 121 4.4 R ates of tectonic deformation 127 4.5 F lexures and folds 128 4.5.1 C ompression: folding of rocks 128 Box 4.1 Elastic and viscous buckling theory 130 4.5.2 F olding vs. faulting: fault-bend folds 133 4.5.3 E xtension: boudinage or necking instability 135 4.5.4 Gravitational instability: diapirs and intrusions 136 4.6 F ractures and faults 139 4.6.1 Why faults? Localization 139 4.6.2 Joints, joint networks, and lineaments 141 4.6.3 F aults: Anderson’s theory of faulting 143 Box 4.2 Dip angle of Anderson faults 147 4.7 T ectonic associations 154 4.7.1 Planetary grid systems 154 4.7.2 F lexural domes and basins 155 4.7.3 Stress interactions: refraction of grabens by loads 157 4.7.4 Io’s sinking lithosphere 158 4.7.5 T errestrial plate tectonics 160 Further reading 161 Exercises 162 5 Volcanism 169 5.1 Melting and magmatism 169 5.1.1 Why is planetary volcanism so common? 170 Box 5.1 The adiabatic gradient 173 5.1.2 Melting real planets 175 5.1.3 Physical properties of magma 183 5.1.4 Segregation and ascent of magma 187 Box 5.2 The standpipe model of magma ascent 189 5.2 Mechanics of eruption and volcanic constructs 194 5.2.1 C entral versus fissure eruptions 194 5.2.2 Physics of quiescent versus explosive eruptions 195 Box 5.3 A speed limit for volcanic ejecta 200 x Contents 5.2.3 Volcanic surface features 204 5.3 L ava flows, domes, and plateaus 208 5.3.1 L ava flow morphology 208 5.3.2 T he mechanics of lava flows 210 5.3.3 L ava domes, channels, and plateaus 214 Further reading 218 Exercises 218 6 Impact cratering 222 6.1 History of impact crater studies 222 6.2 Impact crater morphology 223 6.2.1 Simple craters 224 6.2.2 C omplex craters 224 6.2.3 Multiring basins 226 6.2.4 A berrant crater types 228 6.2.5 Degraded crater morphology 229 6.3 C ratering mechanics 229 6.3.1 C ontact and compression 230 6.3.2 E xcavation 233 6.3.3 Modification 238 Box 6.1 Maxwell’s Z model of crater excavation 242 6.4 E jecta deposits 244 6.4.1 Ballistic sedimentation 246 6.4.2 F luidized ejecta blankets 248 6.4.3 Secondary craters 250 6.4.4 O blique impact 251 6.5 Scaling of crater dimensions 251 6.5.1 C rater diameter scaling 252 6.5.2 Impact melt mass 253 6.6 A tmospheric interactions 254 6.7 C ratered landscapes 255 6.7.1 Description of crater populations 256 6.7.2 E volution of crater populations 261 6.8 Dating planetary surfaces with impact craters 262 6.8.1 b > 2 population evolution 263 6.8.2 b < 2 population evolution 265 6.8.3 L eading/trailing asymmetry 266 6.9 Impact cratering and planetary evolution 267 6.9.1 Planetary accretion 267 6.9.2 Impact catastrophism 268 6.9.3 O rigin of the Moon 269 6.9.4 L ate Heavy Bombardment 269 Contents xi 6.9.5 Impact-induced volcanism? 270 6.9.6 Biological extinctions 271 Further reading 271 Exercises 272 7 R egoliths, weathering, and surface texture 276 7.1 L unar and asteroid regoliths: soil on airless bodies 276 7.1.1 Impact comminution and gardening 279 Box 7.1 Growth of the lunar regolith 282 7.1.2 R egolith maturity 285 7.1.3 R adiation effects on airless bodies 286 7.2 T emperatures beneath planetary surfaces 288 7.2.1 Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles 289 7.2.2 Heat transfer in regoliths 290 7.2.3 T hermal inertia 293 7.3 Weathering: processes at the surface/atmosphere interface 293 7.3.1 C hemical weathering 295 7.3.2 Physical weathering 300 7.3.3 Sublimation weathering 306 7.3.4 Duricrusts and cavernous weathering 308 7.3.5 Desert varnish 309 7.3.6 T errestrial soils 310 7.4 Surface textures 311 7.4.1 “Fairy castle” lunar surface structure 311 7.4.2 Stone pavements: why the Brazil nuts are on top 313 7.4.3 Mudcracks, desiccation features 315 Further reading 316 Exercises 316 8 Slopes and mass movement 319 8.1 Soil creep 319 8.1.1 Mechanism of soil creep 320 8.1.2 L andforms of creeping terrain 323 8.2 L andslides 326 8.2.1 L oose debris: cohesion c = 0 327 8.2.2 C ohesive materials c > 0 331 Box 8.1 Crater terraces as slump blocks 336 8.2.3 Gravity currents 339 8.2.4 L ong-runout landslides or sturzstroms 340 Further reading 344 Exercises 345 xii Contents 9 Wind 348 9.1 Sand vs. dust 349 9.1.1 T erminal velocity 349 9.1.2 Suspension of small particles 352 9.2 Motion of sand-sized grains 353 9.2.1 Initiation of motion 354 9.2.2 T ransport by the wind 361 9.2.3 T he entrainment of dust 363 9.2.4 A brasion by moving sand 365 9.3 E olian landforms 365 9.3.1 T he instability of sandy surfaces 365 9.3.2 R ipples, ridges, and sand shadows 366 Box 9.1 Kamikaze grains on Mars 368 9.3.3 Dunes 371 9.3.4 Y ardangs and deflation 376 9.3.5 Wind streaks 377 9.3.6 T ransient phenomena 378 Further reading 379 Exercises 380 10 Water 382 10.1 “Hydrologic” cycles 383 10.1.1 T ime, flow, and chance 383 10.1.2 R ainfall: infiltration and runoff 386 10.2 Water below the surface 388 10.2.1 T he water table: the piezometric surface 388 10.2.2 Percolation flow 390 10.2.3 Springs and sapping 392 Box 10.1 How long can streams flow after the rain stops? 393 10.3 Water on the surface 395 10.3.1 O verland flow 396 10.3.2 Streamflow 401 10.3.3 C hannels 407 Box 10.2 Analysis of stream networks 416 10.3.4 Standing water: oceans, lakes, playas 418 10.3.5 F luvial landscapes 428 Further reading 431 Exercises 432 11 Ice 434 11.1 Ice on planetary surfaces 434 11.1.1 Ice within the hydrologic cycle 435 11.1.2 Glacier classification 436 11.1.3 R ock glaciers 438 Contents xiii 11.2 F low of glaciers 439 11.2.1 Glen’s law 440 11.2.2 T he plastic-flow approximation 442 11.2.3 O ther ices, other rheologies 443 11.2.4 Basal sliding 444 Box 11.1 Salt glaciers and solution creep 445 11.3 Glacier morphology 446 11.3.1 F low velocities in glaciers and ice sheets 447 11.3.2 L ongitudinal flow regime and crevasses 448 11.3.3 Ice-sheet elevation profile 449 11.4 Glacial landforms 451 11.4.1 Glacial erosion 451 11.4.2 Glacial deposition 452 11.5 Ice in the ground 454 11.5.1 Permafrost 455 11.5.2 Patterned ground 459 11.5.3 T hermokarst 462 Further reading 462 Exercises 463 References 465 Index 485 Color plates appear between pages 236 and 237 |
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