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Engineering.Thermodynamics.of.Thermal.Radiation.for.Solar.Power.Utilization
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Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Objective and Scope of This Book . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 General Thermodynamic Definitions . . . . . 5 2 Definitions and Laws of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1 Equation of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.2 State Parameters of Substance . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2.1 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2.2 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3 Energy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.4 Energy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.4.1 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.4.2 Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.5 Entropy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.6 Exergy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.6.1 Traditional Exergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.6.2 Gravitational Interpretation of Exergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.6.3 Exergy Annihilation Law . . . . . . . . . 28 2.6.4 Exergy Transfer During Heat and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.7 Chemical Exergy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . 31 Nomenclature for Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3 Definitions and Laws of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1 Radiation Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.2 Radiant Properties of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . 39 3.3 Definitions of the Radiation of Surfaces . . . . 41 3.4 Planck’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.5 Wien’s Displacement Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.6 Stefan–Boltzmann Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.7 Lambert’s Cosine Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.8 Kirchhoff’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Nomenclature for Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 55 vii viii C o n t e n t s 4 The Laws of Thermodynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . 57 4.1 Outline of Thermodynamic Analysis . . . . . . 57 4.1.1 Significance of Thermodynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4.1.2 General Remarks and Definition of the Considered Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4.2 Substance and Mass Conservation . . . . . . . 60 4.3 Energy Conservation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.3.1 Energy Balance Equations . . . . . . . . 62 4.3.2 Components of the Energy Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4.4 Entropy Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.5 Exergy Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.5.1 Traditional Exergy Balance . . . . . . . . 68 4.5.2 Components of the Traditional Exergy Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.5.3 Exergy Balance at Varying Environment Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.5.4 Exergy Balance with Gravity Input . . 73 4.6 Process Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.6.1 Carnot Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.6.2 Perfection Degree of Process . . . . . . . 84 4.6.3 Specific Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.6.4 Remarks on the Efficiency of Radiation Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.6.5 Consumption Indices . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.7 Method of Reconciliation of the Measurement Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Nomenclature for Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . 94 5 Thermodynamic Properties of Photon Gas . . . . . . 97 5.1 Nature of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.2 Temperature of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . 101 5.3 Energy of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.4 Pressure of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.5 Entropy of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.6 Isentropic Process of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . 113 5.7 Exergy of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.8 Mixing Photon Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 5.9 Analogies Between Substance and Photon Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Nomenclature for Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . 122 6 Exergy of Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 6.1 Basic Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 C o n t e n t s ix 6.2 Derivation of the Emission Exergy Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 6.3 Analysis of the Formula of the Exergy of Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 6.4 Efficiency of Radiation Processes . . . . . . . . 132 6.4.1 Radiation-to-Work Conversion . . . . . 132 6.4.2 Radiation-to-Heat Conversion . . . . . 136 6.4.3 Other Processes Driven by Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 6.5 Irreversibility of Radiative Heat Transfer . . . 140 6.6 Irreversibility of Emission and Absorption of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.7 Influence of Surroundings on the Radiation Exergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 6.7.1 Emissivity of the Environment . . . . . 146 6.7.2 Configuration of Surroundings . . . . . 147 6.7.3 Presence of Other Surfaces . . . . . . . . 149 6.8 “Cold” Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 6.9 Radiation Exergy at Varying Environmental Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.10 Radiation of Surface of Nonuniform Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.10.1 Emission Exergy at Continuous Surface Temperature Distribution . . . . . . . . 160 6.10.2 Effective Temperature of a Nonisothermal Surface . . . . . . . . . . 161 Nomenclature for Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . 165 7 Radiation Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 7.1 Energy of Radiation Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 7.2 Entropy of Radiation Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 7.2.1 Entropy of the Monochromatic Intensity of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 171 7.2.2 Entropy of Emission from a Black Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 7.2.3 Entropy of Arbitrary Radiosity . . . . . 173 7.3 Exergy of Radiation Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 7.3.1 Arbitrary Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 7.3.2 Polarized Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 7.3.3 Nonpolarized Radiation . . . . . . . . . 178 7.3.4 Nonpolarized and Uniform Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 7.3.5 Nonpolarized, Uniform Radiation in a Solid Angle 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 x C o n t e n t s 7.3.6 Nonpolarized, Black, Uniform Radiation in a Solid Angle 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 7.3.7 Nonpolarized, Black, Uniform Radiation Within a Solid Angle . . . . . . . . . . 181 7.4 Propagation of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 7.4.1 Propagation in a Vacuum . . . . . . . . 182 7.4.2 Some Remarks on Propagation in a Real Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 7.5 Radiation Exergy Exchange Between Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 7.5.1 View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 7.5.2 Emission Exergy Exchange Between Two Black Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 7.5.3 Exergy Exchange Between Two Gray Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 7.6 Exergy of Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 7.6.1 Significance of Solar Radiation . . . . . 208 7.6.2 Possibility of Concentration of Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Nomenclature for Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . 216 8 Radiation Spectra of a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 8.1 Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 8.2 Energy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface . . . 220 8.3 Entropy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface . . . 221 8.4 Radiation Exergy Derived from Exergy Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 8.5 Exergy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface . . . . 227 8.5.1 Spectrum of a Black Surface . . . . . . . 227 8.5.2 Spectrum of a Gray Surface . . . . . . . 233 8.5.3 Exergetic Emissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 8.6 Application of Exergetic Spectra for Exergy Exchange Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 8.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Nomenclature for Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . 244 9 Discussion of Radiation Exergy Formulae Proposed by Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 9.1 Polemic Addressees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 9.2 WhatWork Represents Exergy? . . . . . . . . . 248 9.3 Is Radiation Matter Heat? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 9.4 Bejan’s Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 9.5 Discussion by Wright et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 9.6 Other Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 9.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Nomenclature for Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . 262 C o n t e n t s xi 10 Thermodynamic Analysis of Heat from the Sun . . 265 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 10.2 GlobalWarming Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 10.3 Effect of a Canopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 10.4 Evaluation of Solar Radiation Conversion into Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 10.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Solar Cylindrical–Parabolic Cooker . . . . . . . . . . 279 10.5.1 Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . 279 10.5.2 Description of the SCPC . . . . . . . . . 281 10.5.3 Mathematical Model for Energy Analysis of the SCPC . . . . . . . . . . . 282 10.5.4 Mathematical Consideration of the Exergy Analysis of an SCPC . . . . . . 285 10.5.5 Conclusion Regarding the Solar Cylindrical–Parabolic Cooker . . . . . . 300 Nomenclature for Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . 300 11 Thermodynamic Analysis of a Solar Chimney Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 11.2 Description of the Plant as the Thermodynamic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 11.3 The Main Assumptions for the Simplified Mathematical Model of the SCPP . . . . . . . . 308 11.4 Energy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 11.5 Exergy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 11.6 Exergy Analysis Using the Mechanical Exergy Component for a Substance . . . . . . 325 11.7 Trends of Response for the Varying Input Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Nomenclature for Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . 330 12 Thermodynamic Analysis of Photosynthesis . . . . . 333 12.1 Objectives of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 12.2 Simplified Description of Photosynthesis . . . 334 12.3 Some Earlier Work About Photosynthesis . . 335 12.4 Assumptions Defining the Simplified Mathematical Model of Photosynthesis . . . . 336 12.5 Properties of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 12.5.1 Energy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 12.5.2 Entropy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . 340 12.5.3 Exergy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 12.6 Radiation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 12.6.1 Energy of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 xii C o n t e n t s 12.6.2 Entropy of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 342 12.6.3 Exergy of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 12.7 Balances Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 12.7.1 Mass Conservation Equations . . . . . . 344 12.7.2 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 12.7.3 Entropy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 12.7.4 Exergy Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 12.8 Perfection Degrees of Photosynthesis . . . . . 347 12.9 Some Aspects Inspired by the Example Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 12.9.1 Trends Responsive to Varying Input Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 12.9.2 Relation Between the Environment Temperature, Leaf Temperature, and Rate of Sugar Generation . . . . . . . . . 352 12.9.3 Ratio of VaporizedWater and Assimilated Carbon Dioxide Rates . . . 353 12.9.4 Exergy Losses in the Component Processes of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . 354 12.9.5 Increased Carbon Dioxide Concentration in the Leaf Surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 12.9.6 Remarks on the Photosynthesis Degree of Perfection . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 12.10 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Nomenclature for Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . 362 13 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Photovoltaic . . . . 365 13.1 Significance of the Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . 365 13.2 General Description of the Photovoltaic . . . . 366 13.3 Simplified Thermodynamic Analysis of a Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Nomenclature for Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . 371 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 A.1 Prefixes to Derive Names of Secondary Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 A.2 Typical Constant Values for Radiation and Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 A.3 Application of Mathematics to Some Thermodynamic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 A.4 Review of Some Radiation Energy Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 C o n t e n t s xiii A.5 Review of Some Radiation Entropy Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 A.6 Review of Some Radiation Exergy Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 A.7 Exergy of Liquid Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 |
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