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[资源] Engineering.Thermodynamics.of.Thermal.Radiation.for.Solar.Power.Utilization

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Objective and Scope of This Book . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 General Thermodynamic Definitions . . . . . 5
2 Definitions and Laws of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Equation of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 State Parameters of Substance . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Energy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Energy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.1 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.2 Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Entropy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Exergy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6.1 Traditional Exergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6.2 Gravitational Interpretation
of Exergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6.3 Exergy Annihilation Law . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6.4 Exergy Transfer During Heat
and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Chemical Exergy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . 31
Nomenclature for Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Definitions and Laws of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Radiation Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Radiant Properties of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Definitions of the Radiation of Surfaces . . . . 41
3.4 Planck’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.5 Wien’s Displacement Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6 Stefan–Boltzmann Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 Lambert’s Cosine Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.8 Kirchhoff’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Nomenclature for Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 55
vii
viii C o n t e n t s
4 The Laws of Thermodynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 Outline of Thermodynamic Analysis . . . . . . 57
4.1.1 Significance of Thermodynamic
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1.2 General Remarks and Definition of the
Considered Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Substance and Mass Conservation . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Energy Conservation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.1 Energy Balance Equations . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.2 Components of the Energy Balance
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.4 Entropy Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5 Exergy Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5.1 Traditional Exergy Balance . . . . . . . . 68
4.5.2 Components of the Traditional Exergy
Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5.3 Exergy Balance at Varying Environment
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5.4 Exergy Balance with Gravity Input . . 73
4.6 Process Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.6.1 Carnot Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.6.2 Perfection Degree of Process . . . . . . . 84
4.6.3 Specific Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.6.4 Remarks on the Efficiency of Radiation
Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.6.5 Consumption Indices . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.7 Method of Reconciliation of the
Measurement Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Nomenclature for Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5 Thermodynamic Properties of Photon Gas . . . . . . 97
5.1 Nature of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2 Temperature of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3 Energy of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.4 Pressure of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.5 Entropy of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.6 Isentropic Process of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . 113
5.7 Exergy of Photon Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.8 Mixing Photon Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.9 Analogies Between Substance and
Photon Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Nomenclature for Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6 Exergy of Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.1 Basic Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
C o n t e n t s ix
6.2 Derivation of the Emission Exergy
Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 Analysis of the Formula of the Exergy of
Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.4 Efficiency of Radiation Processes . . . . . . . . 132
6.4.1 Radiation-to-Work Conversion . . . . . 132
6.4.2 Radiation-to-Heat Conversion . . . . . 136
6.4.3 Other Processes Driven
by Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.5 Irreversibility of Radiative Heat Transfer . . . 140
6.6 Irreversibility of Emission and Absorption
of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.7 Influence of Surroundings on the Radiation
Exergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.7.1 Emissivity of the Environment . . . . . 146
6.7.2 Configuration of Surroundings . . . . . 147
6.7.3 Presence of Other Surfaces . . . . . . . . 149
6.8 “Cold” Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.9 Radiation Exergy at Varying Environmental
Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.10 Radiation of Surface of Nonuniform
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.10.1 Emission Exergy at Continuous Surface
Temperature Distribution . . . . . . . . 160
6.10.2 Effective Temperature of a
Nonisothermal Surface . . . . . . . . . . 161
Nomenclature for Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7 Radiation Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.1 Energy of Radiation Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.2 Entropy of Radiation Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.2.1 Entropy of the Monochromatic
Intensity of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.2.2 Entropy of Emission from a Black
Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.2.3 Entropy of Arbitrary Radiosity . . . . . 173
7.3 Exergy of Radiation Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.3.1 Arbitrary Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.3.2 Polarized Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.3.3 Nonpolarized Radiation . . . . . . . . . 178
7.3.4 Nonpolarized and Uniform
Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.3.5 Nonpolarized, Uniform Radiation in a
Solid Angle 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
x C o n t e n t s
7.3.6 Nonpolarized, Black, Uniform Radiation
in a Solid Angle 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.3.7 Nonpolarized, Black, Uniform Radiation
Within a Solid Angle  . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.4 Propagation of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.4.1 Propagation in a Vacuum . . . . . . . . 182
7.4.2 Some Remarks on Propagation in a
Real Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.5 Radiation Exergy Exchange Between
Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.5.1 View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.5.2 Emission Exergy Exchange Between
Two Black Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.5.3 Exergy Exchange Between Two Gray
Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.6 Exergy of Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.6.1 Significance of Solar Radiation . . . . . 208
7.6.2 Possibility of Concentration of Solar
Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Nomenclature for Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8 Radiation Spectra of a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.1 Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.2 Energy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface . . . 220
8.3 Entropy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface . . . 221
8.4 Radiation Exergy Derived from Exergy
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.5 Exergy Radiation Spectrum of a Surface . . . . 227
8.5.1 Spectrum of a Black Surface . . . . . . . 227
8.5.2 Spectrum of a Gray Surface . . . . . . . 233
8.5.3 Exergetic Emissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.6 Application of Exergetic Spectra for Exergy
Exchange Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
8.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Nomenclature for Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9 Discussion of Radiation Exergy Formulae Proposed
by Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.1 Polemic Addressees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.2 WhatWork Represents Exergy? . . . . . . . . . 248
9.3 Is Radiation Matter Heat? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.4 Bejan’s Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.5 Discussion by Wright et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.6 Other Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Nomenclature for Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . 262
C o n t e n t s xi
10 Thermodynamic Analysis of Heat from the Sun . . 265
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
10.2 GlobalWarming Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.3 Effect of a Canopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.4 Evaluation of Solar Radiation Conversion
into Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Solar
Cylindrical–Parabolic Cooker . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.5.1 Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.5.2 Description of the SCPC . . . . . . . . . 281
10.5.3 Mathematical Model for Energy
Analysis of the SCPC . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10.5.4 Mathematical Consideration of the
Exergy Analysis of an SCPC . . . . . . 285
10.5.5 Conclusion Regarding the Solar
Cylindrical–Parabolic Cooker . . . . . . 300
Nomenclature for Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . 300
11 Thermodynamic Analysis of a Solar Chimney
Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.2 Description of the Plant as the
Thermodynamic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
11.3 The Main Assumptions for the Simplified
Mathematical Model of the SCPP . . . . . . . . 308
11.4 Energy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
11.5 Exergy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
11.6 Exergy Analysis Using the Mechanical
Exergy Component for a Substance . . . . . . 325
11.7 Trends of Response for the Varying Input
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Nomenclature for Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . 330
12 Thermodynamic Analysis of Photosynthesis . . . . . 333
12.1 Objectives of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
12.2 Simplified Description of Photosynthesis . . . 334
12.3 Some Earlier Work About Photosynthesis . . 335
12.4 Assumptions Defining the Simplified
Mathematical Model of Photosynthesis . . . . 336
12.5 Properties of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
12.5.1 Energy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
12.5.2 Entropy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . 340
12.5.3 Exergy of Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
12.6 Radiation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
12.6.1 Energy of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
xii C o n t e n t s
12.6.2 Entropy of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . 342
12.6.3 Exergy of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.7 Balances Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
12.7.1 Mass Conservation Equations . . . . . . 344
12.7.2 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
12.7.3 Entropy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
12.7.4 Exergy Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
12.8 Perfection Degrees of Photosynthesis . . . . . 347
12.9 Some Aspects Inspired by the Example
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
12.9.1 Trends Responsive to Varying Input
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
12.9.2 Relation Between the Environment
Temperature, Leaf Temperature, and
Rate of Sugar Generation . . . . . . . . . 352
12.9.3 Ratio of VaporizedWater and
Assimilated Carbon Dioxide Rates . . . 353
12.9.4 Exergy Losses in the Component
Processes of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . 354
12.9.5 Increased Carbon Dioxide
Concentration in the Leaf
Surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
12.9.6 Remarks on the Photosynthesis
Degree of Perfection . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
12.10 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Nomenclature for Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . 362
13 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Photovoltaic . . . . 365
13.1 Significance of the Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . 365
13.2 General Description of the Photovoltaic . . . . 366
13.3 Simplified Thermodynamic Analysis of a
Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Nomenclature for Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . 371
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
A.1 Prefixes to Derive Names of Secondary
Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
A.2 Typical Constant Values for Radiation and
Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
A.3 Application of Mathematics to Some
Thermodynamic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
A.4 Review of Some Radiation Energy
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
C o n t e n t s xiii
A.5 Review of Some Radiation Entropy
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
A.6 Review of Some Radiation Exergy
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
A.7 Exergy of Liquid Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
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