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[×ÊÔ´] Foundations.of.Geometry,.Gerard.Venema,.2ed,.Pearson,.2012

Contents
Preface ix
1 Prologue: Euclid¡¯s Elements 1
1.1 Geometry before Euclid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The logical structure of Euclid¡¯s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 The historical significance of Euclid¡¯s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 A look at Book I of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 A critique of Euclid¡¯s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Final observations about the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Axiomatic Systems and Incidence Geometry 14
2.1 The structure of an axiomatic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 An example: Incidence geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 The parallel postulates in incidence geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Axiomatic systems and the real world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Theorems, proofs, and logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6 Some theorems from incidence geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 Axioms for Plane Geometry 35
3.1 The undefined terms and two fundamental axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Distance and the Ruler Postulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Plane separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Angle measure and the Protractor Postulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5 The Crossbar Theorem and the Linear Pair Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6 The Side-Angle-Side Postulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7 The parallel postulates and models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Neutral Geometry 69
4.1 The Exterior Angle Theorem and existence of perpendiculars . . . . . . . . 70
4.2 Triangle congruence conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3 Three inequalities for triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4 The Alternate Interior Angles Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.5 The Saccheri-Legendre Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.6 Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.7 Statements equivalent to the Euclidean Parallel Postulate . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.8 Rectangles and defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.9 The Universal Hyperbolic Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5 Euclidean Geometry 106
5.1 Basic theorems of Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 The Parallel Projection Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3 Similar triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4 The Pythagorean Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.5 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.6 Exploring the Euclidean geometry of the triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
v
vi Contents
6 Hyperbolic Geometry 131
6.1 Basic theorems of hyperbolic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Common perpendiculars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3 The angle of parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.4 Limiting parallel rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.5 Asymptotic triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.6 The classification of parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.7 Properties of the critical function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.8 The defect of a triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.9 Is the real world hyperbolic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7 Area 167
7.1 The Neutral Area Postulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.2 Area in Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.3 Dissection theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.4 Proof of the dissection theorem in Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.5 The associated Saccheri quadrilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.6 Area and defect in hyperbolic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8 Circles 195
8.1 Circles and lines in neutral geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2 Circles and triangles in neutral geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3 Circles in Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.4 Circular continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.5 Circumference and area of Euclidean circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8.6 Exploring Euclidean circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9 Constructions 228
9.1 Compass and straightedge constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.2 Neutral constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.3 Euclidean constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.4 Construction of regular polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.5 Area constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.6 Three impossible constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10 Transformations 245
10.1 Properties of isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.2 Rotations, translations, and glide reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
10.3 Classification of Euclidean motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.4 Classification of hyperbolic motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
10.5 A transformational approach to the foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
10.6 Similarity transformations in Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.7 Euclidean inversions in circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
11 Models 287
11.1 The Cartesian model for Euclidean geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11.2 The Poincar´e disk model for hyperbolic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
11.3 Other models for hyperbolic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.4 Models for elliptic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12 Polygonal Models and the Geometry of Space 303
12.1 Curved surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Contents vii
12.2 Approximate models for the hyperbolic plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
12.3 Geometric surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
12.4 The geometry of the universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
12.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
12.6 Further study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
12.7 Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
APPENDICES
A Euclid¡¯s Book I 344
A.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
A.2 Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
A.3 Common Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
A.4 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
B Systems of Axioms for Geometry 350
B.1 Hilbert¡¯s axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
B.2 Birkhoff¡¯s axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
B.3 MacLane¡¯s axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
B.4 SMSG axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
B.5 UCSMP axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
C The Postulates Used in this Book 360
C.1 Criteria used in selecting the postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
C.2 Statements of the postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
C.3 Logical relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
D The van Hiele Model 365
E Set Notation and the Real Numbers 366
E.1 Some elementary set theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
E.2 Axioms for the real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
E.3 Properties of the real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
E.4 One-to-one and onto functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
E.5 Continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
F Hints for Selected Exercises 372
Bibliography 379
Index 382
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