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[×ÊÔ´] Birkhauser2012Foundations of Mathematical Analysis

Contents
1 The Real Number System 1
1.1 Sets and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Review of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 The Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 The Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 Algebraic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 The Field of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.6 An Ordered Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Supremum and Infimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1 Least Upper Bounds and Greatest Lower Bounds . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.3 Equivalent and Countable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.4 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 Sequences: Convergence and Divergence 23
2.1 Sequences and Their Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Limits of Sequences of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2 Operations on Convergent Sequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.3 The Squeeze/Sandwich Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.4 Bounded Monotone Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.5 Subsequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1.6 Bounded Monotone Convergence Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.7 The Bolzano¨CWeierstrass Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.8 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2 Limit Inferior, Limit Superior, and Cauchy Sequences . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.1 Cauchy Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2.2 Summability of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.2.3 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
XI
XII Contents
3 Limits, Continuity, and Differentiability 71
3.1 Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.1 Limit Point of a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.2 Sequential Characterization of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.1.3 Properties of Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.1.4 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.1.5 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1.6 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.1.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.1 Basic Properties of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.2 Squeeze Rule and Examples of Continuous Functions . . 88
3.2.3 Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2.4 Piecewise Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3.1 Basic Properties of Differentiable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.3.2 Smooth and Piecewise Smooth Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3.3 L¡¯Hˆopital¡¯s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.3.4 Limit of a Sequence from a Continuous Function . . . . . . 108
3.3.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4 Applications of Differentiability 115
4.1 Basic Concepts of Injectivity and Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.1.1 Basic Issues about Inverses on R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.2 Further Understanding of Inverse Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.1.3 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.2 Differentiability from the Geometric View Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2.1 Local Extremum Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2.2 Rolle¡¯s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . 127
4.2.3 L¡¯Hˆopital¡¯s Rule: Another Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.2.4 Second-Derivative Test and Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5 Series: Convergence and Divergence 147
5.1 Infinite Series of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.1.1 Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.1.2 Decimal Representation of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.1.3 The Irrationality of e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.1.4 Telescoping Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.1.5 Operations and Convergence Criteria in Series . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.6 Absolutely and Conditionally Convergent Series . . . . . . . 161
5.1.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2 Convergence and Divergence Tests for Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.1 Basic Divergence Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Contents XIII
5.2.2 Tests for Series of Nonnegative Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.2.3 Abel¨CPringsheim Divergence Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.4 Direct Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2.5 Limit Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.2.6 Cauchy¡¯s Condensation Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.2.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.3 Alternating Series and Conditional Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.3.1 Alternating Series Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.3.2 Rearrangement of Terms in a Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.3.3 Riemann¡¯s Theorem on Conditionally Convergent
Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.3.4 Dirichlet Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.3.5 Cauchy Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.3.6 (C, 1) Summability of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.3.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6 Definite and Indefinite Integrals 209
6.1 Definition and Basic Properties of Riemann Integrals. . . . . . . . . 209
6.1.1 Darboux Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.1.2 Basic Properties of Upper and Lower Sums . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.1.3 Criteria for Integrability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.1.4 Basic Examples of Integrable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.1.5 Integrability of Monotone/Continuous Functions . . . . . . 230
6.1.6 Basic Properties of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
6.1.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.2 Fundamental Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.2.1 The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.2.2 The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.2.3 Average Value of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.2.4 The Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.2.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
7 Improper Integrals and Applications of Riemann
Integrals 271
7.1 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.1.1 Improper Integrals over an Unbounded Interval . . . . . . . 272
7.1.2 Improper Integrals of Unbounded Functions . . . . . . . . . . 280
7.1.3 The Gamma and Beta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
7.1.4 Wallis¡¯s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.1.5 The Integral Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.1.6 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
7.2 Applications of the Riemann Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.2.1 Area in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.2.2 Arc Length of a Plane Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
7.2.3 Arc Length for Parameterized Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
XIV Contents
7.2.4 Arc Length of Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
7.2.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8 Power Series 331
8.1 The Ratio Test and the Root Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8.1.1 The Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8.1.2 The Root Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.1.3 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.2 Basic Issues around the Ratio and Root Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.2.1 Convergence of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
8.2.2 Radius of Convergence of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.2.3 Methods for Finding the Radius of Convergence . . . . . . . 347
8.2.4 Uniqueness Theorem for Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
8.2.5 Real Analytic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.2.6 The Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
8.2.7 Taylor¡¯s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.2.8 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
9 Uniform Convergence of Sequences of Functions 371
9.1 Pointwise and Uniform Convergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
9.1.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
9.1.2 Uniform Convergence and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.1.3 Interchange of Limit and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
9.1.4 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.2 Uniform Convergence of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
9.2.1 Two Tests for Uniform Convergence of Series . . . . . . . . . 396
9.2.2 Interchange of Summation and Integration. . . . . . . . . . . . 400
9.2.3 Interchange of Limit and Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
9.2.4 The Weierstrass Approximation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.2.5 Abel¡¯s Limit Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9.2.6 Abel¡¯s Summability of Series and Tauber¡¯s
First Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
9.2.7 (C, ¦Á) Summable Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
9.2.8 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10 Fourier Series and Applications 429
10.1 A Basic Issue in Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
10.1.1 Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
10.1.2 Trigonometric Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.1.3 The Space E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.1.4 Basic Results on Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
10.1.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
10.2 Convergence of Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.2.1 Statement of Dirichlet¡¯s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.2.2 Fourier Series of Functions with an Arbitrary Period . . . 448
Contents XV
10.2.3 Change of Interval and Half-Range Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
10.2.4 Issues Concerning Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
10.2.5 Dirichlet¡¯s Kernel and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
10.2.6 Two Versions of Dirichlet¡¯s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
10.2.7 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
11 Functions of Bounded Variation and Riemann¨CStieltjes
Integrals 469
11.1 Functions of Bounded Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
11.1.1 Sufficient Conditions for Functions of Bounded
Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
11.1.2 Basic Properties of Functions of Bounded Variation . . . . 474
11.1.3 Characterization of Functions of Bounded Variation . . . 479
11.1.4 Bounded Variation and Absolute Continuity . . . . . . . . . . 483
11.1.5 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
11.2 Stieltjes Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
11.2.1 The Darboux¨CStieltjes Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
11.2.2 The Riemann¨CStieltjes Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
11.2.3 Questions and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
References for Further Reading 507
Index of Notation 509
Appendix A: Hints for Selected Questions and Exercises 513
Index 565
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