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铜连接技术Copper Interconnect Technology
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Table of contents : Preface......Page 6 Acknowledgments......Page 9 Contents......Page 10 Author Biography......Page 15 1 Introduction......Page 16 1.1 Trends and Challenges......Page 17 1.2 Physical Limits and Search for New Materials......Page 20 1.3 Challenges......Page 21 1.4.1 Why Copper (Cu) Interconnects?......Page 22 1.5.1 Multilayer Metal Architecture......Page 30 1.5.2 Substrate Engineering......Page 31 1.6 An Alternate Technology for Interconnects......Page 34 1.7 Materials Used in Modern Integrated Circuits......Page 36 1.7.1 Properties of Copper......Page 38 1.7.2 Grain Size......Page 39 1.7.3 Melting Temperature......Page 40 1.8 Barrier Layer......Page 42 1.9 Low-K Dielectric Materials......Page 43 1.10 Polymers......Page 45 1.11.1 Silicon (Si)......Page 48 1.12.2 Accomplishments......Page 50 1.13 Technologies of the 21st Century, and the Plan to Meet the Challenges......Page 53 1.14 Ultra-Shallow Junction (USJ)......Page 55 1.15 Circuit Design and Architecture Improvements......Page 56 1.16 Performance and Leakage in Low Standby Power (LSTP) Systems......Page 57 1.17 Introduction of New Materials and Integration Processes......Page 58 1.17.1 Nano-Materials......Page 59 1.17.2 Superconductors......Page 60 1.17.3 Integration Processes......Page 62 1.18 Summary......Page 68 References......Page 70 2.1 Introduction......Page 81 2.2.1 Introduction......Page 85 2.2.2 Mathematical Model......Page 88 2.2.3 Selection Criteria for an Ideal Low-K Material......Page 90 2.2.4 Search for an Ideal Low-K Material......Page 92 2.2.5 Achievement......Page 97 2.2.6 Impact of Low-K ILD Materials on the Cu-Damascene Process......Page 106 2.2.7 Deposition Techniques......Page 109 2.3.1 Introduction......Page 111 2.3.2 Impact on Scaling and Requirements......Page 112 2.3.3 Search for a Suitable High-K Dielectric Material......Page 113 2.3.5 Summary......Page 116 References......Page 117 3.1.1 Introduction......Page 125 3.1.2 Transitional Effects......Page 127 3.1.3 Mathematical Modeling of Diffusion in Cu-Interconnects......Page 128 3.1.4 Grain Boundary (GB) Diffusion......Page 132 3.1.5 Vacancy Diffusion......Page 134 3.1.6 Drift Diffusion......Page 135 3.1.8 Diffusion of Copper and Its Consequences......Page 136 3.1.9 Precipitation......Page 138 3.2.1 Theory......Page 139 3.2.3 Barrier Layer Architecture......Page 140 3.2.4 Interlayer Reactions......Page 142 3.2.5 Influence of the Barrier Layer Properties on the Reliability of Cu-Interconnects......Page 146 3.2.7 Reaction Rates......Page 149 3.2.8 Influence of the Barrier Layer on the Electrical Conductivity of Cu-Lines......Page 153 3.2.9 Influence of Barrier Layer Thermal Conductivity on Cu-Line......Page 155 3.2.10 Classification of Barrier Layer......Page 158 3.2.11 Properties of Different Barrier Layer Materials......Page 159 3.2.12 Cap-Layer, Its Properties and Functions......Page 162 3.3 Summary......Page 164 References......Page 165 4.1.1 Introduction......Page 174 4.1.2 Resolution Limits of Optical Lithography......Page 177 4.1.3 Deep Ultraviolet (DUV) Lithography......Page 181 4.1.4 Reticles......Page 186 4.1.5 Enhancement Techniques for Resolution......Page 188 4.1.6 157 nm Lithography......Page 192 4.1.7 Chemically Amplified Resist (CA)......Page 196 4.1.8 Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) Lithography......Page 198 4.1.9 e-Beam Lithography (EBL)......Page 202 4.1.10 Electron-Beam Resist......Page 205 4.1.12 Step and Flash Imprint Lithography (SFIL)......Page 208 4.2.1 Etching......Page 210 4.2.2 Cleaning......Page 223 4.3 Summary......Page 227 References......Page 229 5.1 Introduction......Page 236 5.2.1 Cu-Damascene Process......Page 237 5.3 Deposition Requirements......Page 238 5.4 Thin Film Growth and Theory of Nucleation......Page 239 5.4.1 Nucleation Theory......Page 240 5.5.1 Physical Vapor Deposition......Page 243 5.5.2 Sputtering......Page 244 5.5.3 Ionized Physical Vapor Deposition (IPVD)......Page 247 5.6.1 Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD) System......Page 249 5.6.2 Metal-Organic Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)......Page 251 5.7 Low Temperature Thermal CVD (LTTCVD) System......Page 253 5.8 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)......Page 254 5.9.1 History of Electroplating and Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)......Page 256 5.9.2 DC Bath Chemistry......Page 257 5.9.3 Electroplating of Copper Inside Damascene Architecture......Page 258 5.10 Process Chemistry for Superconformal Electrodeposition of Copper......Page 260 5.11 Electrochemical Mechanical Deposition (ECMD)......Page 261 5.12 Influenc of the Seed Layer on Electroplating......Page 262 5.13 Electroless Deposition of Copper......Page 263 5.14 Stress in Cu-Interconnects......Page 264 5.15 Summary......Page 266 References......Page 267 6.1.1 Introduction......Page 279 6.1.2 Conventional Metallization Technology......Page 282 6.1.3 Cu-Damascene Metallization Technology......Page 283 6.1.4 General Objectives and Challenges......Page 288 6.2.1 Introduction......Page 290 6.2.2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP)Technology......Page 291 6.2.3 Copper Dishing Model......Page 297 6.2.4 Slurry Chemistry......Page 298 6.2.5 Particle Size Inside the Slurry......Page 299 6.2.9 Pad Conditioning......Page 301 6.2.10 Shallow Trench Isolation (STI)......Page 302 6.2.12 End-Point Detection......Page 303 6.2.13 Dry In Dry Out......Page 304 6.2.15 Post-CMP Cleaning......Page 305 6.2.16 CMP Pattern Density Issues......Page 307 References......Page 308 7.1.1 Introduction......Page 313 7.1.2 Conduction Mechanism and Restrictions......Page 315 7.1.4 Effect of Grain Size and Morphology of the Substrate......Page 323 7.1.5 Morphology of the Cu-Film and Its Influence on the Conduction (Electrical) Mechanism of Cu-Interconnects......Page 324 7.1.6 Effect of Film Thickness on the Conductivity of Cu-Interconnects......Page 329 7.1.7 Diffusion Related Impacts on the Conductivity of a Cu-Line......Page 330 7.1.8 Cu-Line Stress and Its Consequences......Page 331 7.1.9 Conduction of Heat Through Cu-Interconnects......Page 333 7.1.10 Thermal Cycling (Annealing) Related Phenomena......Page 334 7.2.1 Electromigration (EM)......Page 336 7.2.2 Mechanism of Electromigration (EM) and Its Effects......Page 337 7.2.3 Void Formation......Page 341 7.2.4 Analytical Model on Stress Related EM......Page 342 7.2.5 Effect of Microstructure of the Film on Mass Migration......Page 345 7.2.7 Melting Temperature of a Metal and Its Effect on Grain Growth......Page 347 7.3 Summary......Page 348 References......Page 349 8.1.1 Introduction......Page 358 8.1.2 Methods of Improving Interconnect Routings......Page 360 8.1.3 Interconnect Routing Design......Page 362 8.1.4 Challenges with High Density Routing......Page 370 8.1.7 Clocking of High-Speed System......Page 372 8.2.1 Introduction......Page 373 8.2.2 Reliability Issues Related to Cu-Interconnects......Page 376 8.2.3 Measurements......Page 399 8.3 Summary......Page 404 References......Page 405 Glossary (Copper Interconnects)......Page 415 Index......Page 425  |
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