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ÊéÃûThe Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum 5th
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International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-7390-8
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Ŀ¼Preface.......................................................................................................................................... xxiii
Author.............................................................................................................................................xxv
Section I History, Occurrence, and Recovery
Chapter 1 History and Terminology..............................................................................................3
1.1 Historical Perspectives.......................................................................................3
1.2 Modern Perspectives..........................................................................................9
1.3 Definitions and Terminology............................................................................ 12
1.4 Native Materials............................................................................................... 14
1.4.1 Petroleum............................................................................................ 14
1.4.2 Opportunity Crudes and High-Acid Crudes....................................... 15
1.4.3 Heavy Oil............................................................................................ 16
1.4.4 Foamy Oil............................................................................................ 16
1.4.5 Extra Heavy Oil................................................................................... 17
1.4.6 Bitumen............................................................................................... 17
1.4.7 Wax...................................................................................................... 18
1.4.8 Asphaltite and Asphaltoid................................................................... 18
1.4.9 Bituminous Rock and Bituminous Sand............................................. 19
1.4.10 Kerogen...............................................................................................20
1.4.11 Natural Gas.........................................................................................20
1.5 Manufactured Materials...................................................................................22
1.5.1 Wax......................................................................................................22
1.5.2 Resid....................................................................................................22
1.5.3 Asphalt................................................................................................23
1.5.4 Tar and Pitch.......................................................................................23
1.5.5 Coke.....................................................................................................24
1.5.6 Synthetic Crude Oil.............................................................................24
1.6 Derived Materials.............................................................................................24
1.6.1 Asphaltenes, Carbenes, and Carboids.................................................24
1.6.2 Resins and Oils....................................................................................25
1.7 Oil Prices..........................................................................................................26
1.7.1 Pricing Strategies................................................................................26
1.7.2 Oil Price History.................................................................................27
1.7.3 Future of Oil........................................................................................28
1.7.4 Epilogue..............................................................................................28
References...................................................................................................................28
Chapter 2 Classification............................................................................................................... 31
2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 31
2.2 Classification Systems...................................................................................... 32
2.2.1 Classification as a Hydrocarbon Resource.......................................... 32
2.2.2 Classification by Chemical Composition............................................34
2.2.3 Correlation Index................................................................................. 35
vi Contents
2.2.4 Density................................................................................................36
2.2.5 API Gravity........................................................................................37
2.2.6 Viscosity.............................................................................................38
2.2.7 Carbon Distribution............................................................................38
2.2.8 Viscosity-Gravity Constant................................................................38
2.2.9 UOP Characterization Factor............................................................. 39
2.2.10 Recovery Method............................................................................... 39
2.2.11 Pour Point...........................................................................................40
2.3 Miscellaneous Systems..................................................................................... 41
2.4 Reservoir Classification.................................................................................... 42
2.4.1 Identification and Quantification........................................................ 42
2.4.2 Future..................................................................................................44
References...................................................................................................................44
Chapter 3 Origin and Occurrence................................................................................................ 47
3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 47
3.2 Origin............................................................................................................... 47
3.2.1 Abiogenic Origin................................................................................48
3.2.2 Biogenic Origin..................................................................................49
3.2.2.1 Deposition of Organic Matter............................................. 51
3.2.2.2 Establishment of Source Beds............................................ 51
3.2.2.3 Nature of the Source Material............................................ 53
3.2.2.4 Transformation of Organic Matter into Petroleum............. 55
3.2.2.5 Accumulation in Reservoir Sediments............................... 57
3.2.2.6 In Situ Transformation of Petroleum.................................. 61
3.2.3 Differences between Abiogenic Theory and Biogenic Theory..........64
3.2.4 Relationship of Petroleum Composition and Properties....................65
3.3 Occurrence....................................................................................................... 67
3.3.1 Reserves.............................................................................................. 67
3.3.2 Conventional Petroleum..................................................................... 70
3.3.3 Natural Gas......................................................................................... 71
3.3.4 Heavy Oil........................................................................................... 72
3.3.5 Bitumen.............................................................................................. 73
References................................................................................................................... 75
Chapter 4 Reservoirs and Reservoir Fluids................................................................................. 79
4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 79
4.2 Reservoirs......................................................................................................... 79
4.2.1 Structural Types.................................................................................80
4.2.2 Heterogeneity...................................................................................... 81
4.3 Classes of Fluids...............................................................................................82
4.4 Evaluation of Reservoir Fluids.........................................................................83
4.4.1 Sampling Methods..............................................................................84
4.4.2 Data Acquisition and QA/QC.............................................................85
4.5 Physical Composition and Molecular Weight..................................................87
4.5.1 Asphaltene Separation........................................................................87
4.5.2 Fractionation.......................................................................................89
4.5.3 Molecular Weight............................................................................... 91
4.6 Reservoir Evaluation........................................................................................95
References...................................................................................................................96
Contents vii
Chapter 5 Kerogen.......................................................................................................................99
5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................99
5.2 Properties..........................................................................................................99
5.3 Composition.................................................................................................... 102
5.4 Classification.................................................................................................. 102
5.5 Isolation.......................................................................................................... 104
5.6 Methods for Probing Kerogen Structure........................................................ 104
5.6.1 Ultimate (Elemental) Analysis.......................................................... 104
5.6.2 Functional Group Analysis............................................................... 105
5.6.3 Oxidation........................................................................................... 105
5.6.4 Thermal Methods.............................................................................. 106
5.6.5 Acid-Catalyzed Hydrogenolysis........................................................ 107
5.7 Structural Models........................................................................................... 107
5.8 Kerogen Maturation........................................................................................ 109
References................................................................................................................. 111
Chapter 6 Exploration, Recovery, and Transportation............................................................... 115
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 115
6.2 Exploration..................................................................................................... 116
6.2.1 Gravity Methods................................................................................ 117
6.2.2 Magnetic Methods............................................................................. 118
6.2.3 Seismic Methods............................................................................... 119
6.2.4 Electrical Methods............................................................................ 119
6.2.5 Electromagnetic Methods................................................................. 120
6.2.6 Radioactive Methods......................................................................... 120
6.2.7 Borehole Logging.............................................................................. 120
6.3 Drilling........................................................................................................... 121
6.3.1 Preparing to Drill.............................................................................. 121
6.3.2 Drilling Equipment........................................................................... 122
6.3.3 Drilling Rig.......................................................................................124
6.3.4 Drilling.............................................................................................. 125
6.4 Well Completion............................................................................................. 125
6.5 Recovery......................................................................................................... 126
6.5.1 Primary Recovery............................................................................. 128
6.5.2 Secondary Recovery......................................................................... 130
6.5.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery.................................................................... 132
6.6 Products and Product Quality........................................................................ 141
6.7 Transportation................................................................................................ 142
References.................................................................................................................¡·¡·¡·¡·¡·¡·¡·¡·¡·¡·´«ÆæÊé¼®¡¶Ê¯ÓÍ»¯Ñ§Óë¼¼Êõ¡·Ó¢Îİæ 5th edition
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