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Rosenthal and Evans used playbacks of video animations to show that females did not exhibit a preference between a swordless male and a sworded male if the total body length of the two were equal.
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Much of the research in sexual selection in the last two decades has examined how a female¡¯s preference that does not influence her immediate reproductive success can still evolve if it is genetically correlated with another character under direct selection.
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Two hypotheses for female preference evolution¡ªrunaway sexual selection and good genes selection¡ªstate that preferences evolve indirectly because they are genetically correlated with male traits that are under direct selection; that is, the preferences themselves are not under direct selection.
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Studies of receiver biases suggest that such analogies might not be broadly applicable.
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Burley argued that the preference for red beaks is adaptive because it indicates male health, and this preference is then transferred to leg-band color.
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According to the anti-monotony hypothesis, habituation plays an important role in the evolution of complex vocalizations in songbirds: Increased song complexity reduces habituation of neighboring males and courting females.
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Previous studies of acoustic and bioluminescent interactions had emphasized potential advantages to group-signaling organization, such as minimizing predation, preserving species-specific signal characters, or increasing the attractiveness of the group.
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