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A Collection of GRE Sample Essays
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Issue "The reputation of anyone who is subjected to media scrutiny will eventually be diminished." Sample Essay The intensity of today's media coverage has been greatly magnified by the sheer number and types of media outlets that are available today. Intense competition for the most revealing photographs and the latest information on a subject has turned even minor media events into so-called "media frenzies". Reporters are forced by the nature of the competition to pry ever deeper for an angle on a story that no one else has been able to uncover. With this type of media coverage, it does become more and more likely that anyone who is subjected to it will have his or her reputation tarnished, as no individual is perfect. Everyone makes mistakes. The advances in technology have made much information easily and instantaneously available. Technology has also made it easier to dig further than ever before into a person's past, increasing the possibility that the subject's reputation may be harmed. The above statement is much too broad, however. "Anyone" covers all people all over the world. There are people whose reputations have only been enhanced by media scrutiny. There are also people whose reputations were already so poor that media scrutiny could not possibly diminish it any further. There may very well be people that have done nothing wrong in the past, at least that can be discovered by the media, whose reputations could not be diminished by media scrutiny. To broadly state that "anyone" subjected to media coverage will have his or her status sullied implies that everyone's reputation worldwide is susceptible to damage under any type of media scrutiny. What about children, particularly newborn children? What about those people whose past is entirely unknown? Another problem with such a broad statement is that it does not define the particular level of media scrutiny. Certainly there are different levels of media coverage. Does merely the mention of one's name in a newspaper constitute media scrutiny? What about the coverage of a single event in someone's life, for example a wedding or the birth of a baby? Is the media coverage of the heroic death of a firefighter or police officer in the line of duty ever going to diminish that person's reputation? It seems highly unlikely that in these examples, although these people may have been subjected to media scrutiny, these individual's reputations are undamaged and potentially enhanced by such exposure. Without a doubt, there are many examples of individual's whose reputations have been diminished by media scrutiny. The media's uncovering of former U.S. President Bill Clinton's affair with Monica Lewinsky will most likely overshadow the entire eight years of his administration. Basketball superstar Michael Jordan's sterling reputation has been tarnished more than once by the media; first by media coverage of his gambling habits, then most recently (and in a much more harmful manner) by news reports of his marital infidelities and the divorce from his wife of thirteen years. Fame and fortune can turn an ordinary individual into a media target where reporters will stop at almost nothing to "dig up dirt" that will sell more newspapers or entice more viewers to watch a television program. It could even be argued that media scrutiny killed Princess Diana as her car sped away from the privacy-invading cameras of reporters in Paris. There is no doubt that there are a large number of people who have been hurt in one way or another by particularly intense media scrutiny. In summary, it seems impossible that for every person that is subjected to media scrutiny, his or her reputation will eventually be diminished. Millions of people are mentioned in the media every day yet still manage to go about their lives unhurt by the media. Normal individuals that are subjected to media scrutiny can have their reputation either enhanced or damaged depending on the circumstances surrounding the media coverage. The likelihood of a diminished reputation from the media rises proportionally with the level of notoriety that an individual possesses and the outrageousness of that person's behavior. The length of time in the spotlight can also be a determining factor, as the longer the person is examined in the media, the greater the possibility that damaging information will be discovered or that the individual will do something to disparage his or her reputation. But to broadly state that media scrutiny will diminish anyone's reputation is to overstate the distinct possibility that, given a long enough time and a certain level of intensity of coverage, the media may damage a person's reputation. (766words) 观点陈述型作文/[题目] "被置于媒体审视下的任何人，其名誉终将受毁损。" [范文正文] 当今媒体报道的力度，由于当今时代所能获得的媒体渠道那前所未有的数量和种类，从而被极大地增强。围绕着对最具暴露性的图片及对某一题材最新信息所展开的竞争，使哪怕是次要的媒体事件也转变为所谓的"媒体疯狂"。由于竞争的本质，记者们被迫就某一项报道作深度采访，以其窥探到一个任何其他人都无法揭示的视角。随着这类媒体报道的出现，任何被置于媒体报道之下的人，其名誉越来越有可能被玷污，因为"金无赤金，人无完人"。每个人都有可能犯错误。技术进步使大量的信息在第一瞬间便被轻易获取。技术也使媒体得以比以往任何时候更深入地去挖掘一个人的过去，从而更增加了当事人名誉受损的可能性。 然则，上述陈述涵盖面过于宽泛。"任何人"涵盖了世界上所有的人。有些人的名誉反而会因为媒体的聚焦而陡然显赫起来。也有些人，其名声早就如此之糟糕，以致于媒体的聚焦再也无法让它受到更坏的毁损。笼统地陈述受媒体报道的"任何人"均会使其地位被玷污，这暗示着全球每个人的名声在任何种类的媒体聚焦下均易于遭诟病。那么，对于天真无辜的孩子们，尤其新生婴儿，情况会如何？对于那些其过去根本无人知晓的人来说，情况又会是什么样呢？ 对于这样一项笼统的陈述而言，它的另一个问题是没能明晰界定媒体聚焦的具体程度。媒体的报道毫无疑问存在程度上的差别。只在报纸上提及一个人的名字，是否算作媒体聚焦？对某人一生中单独一次事件（如婚礼或孩子出生）的报道这也算媒介聚焦吗？媒体对消防队员或警官因公而死的英雄壮举进行报道，难道也会毁损该人的名声吗？在这些实例中，其名声受损的事情极不可能发生。虽然这些人可能被置于媒体审视之下，但其名声却会完好无损，且潜在地可因这些披露而得以提高。 毫无疑问，也有许多例子能证明一个人的名声会被媒体审视所毁损。媒体对美国前总统Bill Clinton与Monica Lewinsky的风流韵事的揭露极有可能会将其八年的执政生涯置于阴影之中。超级篮球明星Michael Jordan一世英名也被媒体不止一次地玷污，首先是被有关其赌习的媒体报道，其次是最近--且以一种更具致命性伤害的方式--被有关他婚姻不忠以及与其结婚13年的妻子分道扬镳的报道。当媒体记者不择手段去挖掘某些可促使其报纸销量大增的"猛料"时，或去诱惑更多的观众观看某一电视节目时，名和利就会将一个普通人转变为媒体追踪的目标。我们甚至可以提出这样一种论点，即正是媒体的审视将Diana王妃置于死地，随着她的汽车去竭力逃脱巴黎街头的记者们那侵犯隐私的相机镜头。毫无疑问，肯定有许多人被极其强烈的媒体聚焦以一种方式或另一种方式所伤害。 归纳而言，对于每个被置于媒体审视的人来说，其名声将最终受到毁损似乎并不可能。每天，有数百万人被媒体提到，但他们仍设法我行我素，不为媒体所伤害。被置于媒体审视之下的普通人，其名声或可得到提高，或可蒙受毁损，取决于围绕着媒体报道的具体情况。一个人的名声受媒体毁损的可能性，与所其拥有的臭名昭著的程度，及其行为的令人厌恶程度成正比。受媒体关注的时间长短同样也是一个决定性因素，因为一个人被媒体审视的时间越长，于他名声不利的信息越有可能被抖落出来，或者该人越有可能去做出某些于其名声不利的事情。但只是笼统地陈述媒体的审视终将毁掉一个人的名声，即是过分夸大这样一种显著的可能性，即在足够长的时间和一度程度的报道力度这两个条件下，媒体是有可能毁掉一个人的名声的。 |
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As people grow older, an enzyme known as PEP increasingly breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals involved in learning and memory. But now, researchers have found compounds that prevent PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart. In tests, these compounds almost completely restored lost memory in rats. The use of these compounds should be extended to students who have poor memory and difficulty in concentrating-and therefore serious problems in school performance. Science finally has a solution for problems neither parents nor teachers could solve. In this argument, the arguer states that researchers have found compounds that keep an enzyme known as PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart, which are known to be involved in learning and memory. The arguer states that tests have shown that these compounds almost completely restored lost memory in rats, and that therefore, these compounds should be administered to students with poor memory and difficulty in concentrating. This argument is unconvincing because it contains several critical flaws in logic. First of all, the arguer states that as people grow older, PEP breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals that are involved in learning and memory. It is true that generally, as people get older, they tend to have more problems with learning and memory. However, there is no direct link mentioned between the breaking down of the neuropeptide chemicals and the loss of learning ability or memory. Additionally, the arguer mentions neuropeptide chemicals that are broken down by PEP. What the researchers have found is a compound that prevents neuropeptides from breaking apart. These are two different physical actions: the breaking down of neuropeptide chemicals as opposed to the breaking apart of the neuropeptides themselves. Furthermore, it is not stated which of these physical actions is involved with the loss of learning ability and memory. It is not explicitly stated that the breaking down of chemicals causes a loss in learning ability and memory, only that this happens as people grow older. It is also not expressly stated whether the breaking apart of the neuropeptides themselves causes memory loss or a lessened learning ability. Without showing a direct link between the effect of keeping the neuropeptides from breaking apart and a reduction in the loss of memory and learning ability, the efficacy of the compounds is called into question. Secondly and most obviously, the compounds were only tested on rats. Rats may have a similar genetic structure to humans, but they are most certainly not the same as humans. There may be different causes for the learning and memory problems in rats as opposed to that of humans. The effect of the compounds on rats may also be very different from their effect on human beings. It is absurd in the extreme to advocate giving these compounds to students, even assuming that they would help the students with their studies, without conducting further studies assessing the compounds' overall effects on humans. The argument fails on this particular fact if for no other reason. Additionally, the arguer begins his or her argument by stating that "as people grow older", PEP breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals involved in learning and memory. At the end of the argument, the arguer advocates extending the compounds that prevent PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart to students who have poor memory and difficulty in concentrating. Students are generally young, not older people. There is no evidence presented that shows what actually causes students to have a poor memory or difficulty in concentrating. Indeed, it is more likely that it is extracurricular activities or a lack of sleep that causes such problems in students, not a problem associated with aging. It is highly unlikely that even if the stated compounds could help prevent the memory loss and decreased learning ability associated with aging that it would have any benefits for students. In summary, the arguer fails to convince with the argument as presented. To strengthen the argument, the arguer must show a direct link between the breaking apart of neuropeptides and loss of memory and learning ability. Additionally, he or she must show that students' poor memory and difficulty in concentrating is a result of the same process, and that the researcher's compounds would have as beneficial an effect on humans as it seems to have on rats. (633 words) 参考译文 ［题目］ 随着人们日渐衰老，一种被称为PEP的酶会不断地分解学习与记忆过程中所涉及到的神经肽化学物。但现在，研究人员已发现了可阻止PEP致使神经肽分裂的化合物。在测试中，这些化合物几乎在老鼠身上能完全恢复缺失的记忆。这些化合物的运用应该也推广到记忆力衰弱或专注力有困难的学生身上，不然将会造成学业表现上的严重问题。科学终于解决了那些令家长和老师束手无策的问题。 [范文正文] 在本段论述中，论述者指出，研究人员已发现了某些化合物，可以阻止一种被称为PEP的酶的物质将神经肽予以分解，而神经肽则是学习和记忆过程中所需涉及到的物质。论述者还宣称，检测结果表明，这些化合物几乎完全恢复了老鼠身上缺失的记忆。因此这些化合物应该让那些记忆力差和难于集中注意力的学生服用。这段论述缺乏说服力，因为它包含着某些逻辑推理方面甚为严重的缺陷。 首先，论述者称，随着人们渐趋衰老，PEP 会分解学习和记忆过程中所涉及的神经肽化学物。确实，随人们渐趋衰老，他们往往会在学习和记忆方面遭遇诸多问题。但是，在神经肽化学物的分解以及学习能力与记忆力丧失之间，却没有提到任何直接的联系。除此之外，论述者提及被PEP所分解的几种神经肽化学物。但研究人员所发现的只是一种可阻止神经肽不致于分裂的化合物。这是两种不同性质的物理作用：神经肽化学物的分解有别于神经肽自身的分裂。此外，原论述并未陈述这两种物理作用中的那一种与学习能力和记忆能力的丧失相涉。论述者没有明确陈述化学物的分解导致了学习能力和记忆能力的丧失，而只是陈述这种情形只是随着人们日趋年迈而发生。原论述中也没有确切地陈述神经肽自身的分裂是否会导致记忆缺失或学习能力下降。如果无法在阻止神经肽分裂所能产生的作用与减少记忆能力和学习能力丧失之间证明某种直接的联系，那么，化合物的效用将令人质疑。 第二，也是极为明显地，化合物只是在老鼠身上进行了测试。虽然老鼠与人类具有类似的基因结构，但它们无论如何并不等同于人类。对于学习和记忆问题，老鼠所遇到的原因很可能全然不同于人类所遇到的原因。在没有作进一步的研究来估评化合物对人类所产生的总体效果的情况下，就去提倡将这些化合物供学生服用，甚至假设它们有助于学生提高其学习效果，这实乃荒唐至极。即使不是出于其他原因的话，就这一特定事实本身，该段论述根本就站不住脚。 进一步而言，论述者在其论述的开始陈述道，"随着人们渐趋衰老"，PEP会将学习和记忆过程中所涉及的神经肽化学物进行分解。在论述的结尾之处，论述者倡导将那些可阻止PEP致使神经肽分裂的化合物推广至那些记忆力和专注力差的学生身上。学生普遍而言都是年轻人，而不是老年人。论述者没有拿出任何证据来证明究竟是什么原因实际导至学生们记忆力和专注力下降。较有可能的是，是那些课外活动，或缺少充足的睡眠，导致了学生身上的这些问题。即使所提及的那些化合物真的有助于防止与衰老相关的记忆缺失问题和学习能力下降问题，它们也极不可能也能为学生带来任何的裨益。 总而言之，论述者没能用其提出的论据来说服我们。若要使其论述在逻辑上成立，论述者必须在神经肽的分裂与记忆能力和学习能力的缺失之间证明某种直接的联系。此外，论述者必须证明学生记忆能力差和注意力难以集中均是同一过程造成的，并且研究人员所发现的化合物对人类所产生的效果会对老鼠似乎所产生的效果同样的好。 |
15楼2006-04-06 16:07:49
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Issue "The study of history has value only to the extent that it is relevant to our daily lives." Sample Essay To state that the study of history is only valuable if it is relevant to our daily lives is to ignore the value that history has beyond the day-to-day activities of human beings. It would seem to be a rather shallow statement that implies that humans only live just to survive rather than planning for the futures of their children and the environment. First of all, to study history is to look at a road map of human behavior that has led us to where we are today in the world. For example, the lessons learned during all of the past wars can make for more effective wartime leadership by avoiding mistakes made by past commanders. From the ancient Chinese author Sun Tzu's book "The Art of War", today's military commanders and even business leaders gather valuable information that allows them to operate more efficiently and effectively. The study of this type of history has a value beyond the daily lives of people. It can lead to a military victory or the success of a business that directly affects what happens in the future, including the futures of those that are possibly not even born yet. Another example is that by studying history, parents can help to improve the lives of their children in the future. Lessons learned by generations of their ancestors before them could help show them the way to properly raise a child. What worked for others can give guidance to the parents of today and tomorrow to make sure that children are prepared for their own futures beyond their daily lives. Additionally, the study of medical advances made throughout history can be the foundation to build upon to make the medical advances of today and tomorrow to make people live longer and healthier lives. A researcher's daily life may not be enhanced by the study of the history of the AIDS pathogen, but it could certainly bring about a profound effect on the lives of others in the future if ways to control and cure the disease are found. The study of previous research over history has led to many amazing medical discoveries. To study history only to enrich one's daily life would here again seem to be incongruous with the truth. A further example of the value of the study of history beyond its effect on daily life is the treatment of the environment and the earth as a whole. Looking back to the past to see the various effects of various human behaviors on the environment can show valuable lessons on what can happen if proper precautions are not taken. The nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl have been studied to ensure that they do not happen again. Certainly the study of the effects of nuclear materials on humans and the environment provides value beyond that of the day-to-day life of people. The study of oil spills and their effects on the environment gives similar guidance on how to avoid or at least minimize the damage of an oil spill on the environment. The study of the disintegration of the ozone layer over the poles of the earth has given birth to new laws and regulations on certain chemicals that help to preserve this valuable part of our atmosphere. All of these examples of studying history provide value far beyond its impact on the daily lives of people. To be certain, there are people out there that believe that only what affects them right here and right now is important. For them, the study of history might seem to be a waste of time if it does not affect their day-to-day lives. But for countless other individuals and groups, the study of history leads to improvements in activities that have an effect reaching far into the future, beyond their daily lives. The futures of mankind and the environment depend on these types of people who have enough foresight to study history to make for a better future for everyone. (690 words) 观点陈述型作文 [题目] "对历史的研究只有与我们日常生活相关才有其价值"。 [范文正文] "史学研究只有与我们日常生活相关才有价值"这一陈述忽略了历史在人类日常活动之外的价值。这似乎是一种甚为浅薄的论点，其言下之意是，人类生活在这个世界上只是为了得以生存下去，而不是为着其孩子和环境的未来作规划。 首先，研究历史即是去审视一帧人类行为的"指路图"，让我们明白我们何以会处于目前的状态。例如，从过去战争中所吸取的全部教训能够通过帮助人们避免昔日指挥官们所犯的错误而促进更为有效的战时领导艺术。从中国古代的《孙子兵法》一书中，今天的军事指挥官们甚至是商界领袖们得以获取极有价值的信息，使他们能更有效地进行战争或商业操控。这种历史研究所具备的价值已超越了人们日常生活这一范畴。它所能导致的军事胜利或商业成功可直接影响到未来所要发生的一切，包括尚未出生的人的未来。 另一个例子是通过研究历史，父母们可以改善他们孩子在未来的生活。父辈之前的数代祖先们所学到的教训可以向父辈们表明什么才是抚养孩子的恰当方法。于他人有效的东西可以为当今和未来的父母们提供有益的指导，以确保孩子们可为其未来作好准备。 此外，研究历史上所取得的医学进步可以奠定一个基础，为当今和未来取得医学进步创造条件，使人们得以过上寿命更长且更为健康的生活。研究爱滋病病源体的历史，或许并不能改善研究人员的日常生活，但它却肯定能对其他人在未来的生活产生深远的影响，如果控制和治疗这一疾病的方法能被找到。对历史上昔日的研究进行分析，已导致了许多令人惊喜的医学发现。只为了丰富一个人日常生活而去研究历史，在这里将再一次与事实真相不符。 历史研究的价值能超越其对日常生活的直接影响，这方面的另一个案例是人类是如何对环境及整个地球的。回顾历史，看清各种人类行为对环境所造成的各种影响，这样做可以向人们昭示，如果不采取恰当的防范措施，则后患无穷。发生在三英里岛和切尔诺贝的核事故被研究，以便确保此类事故不再发生。就核物质对人类及环境的影响展开研究，这无疑会提供超越人们日常生活的价值。对原油泄漏及对环境影响进行研究，可以提供类似的指导，让人们懂得如何去避免或至少是减轻原油泄漏对环境产生的后果。对地球南北两极臭氧层遭破坏进行研究，促使人类就某些化学品制定出新的法规，从而有助于保护我们大气层中的有价值的这一部分。所有这些研究历史的实例所提供的价值无疑已超越了对人们日常生活所产生的影响。 当然了，社会上有些人相信，只有那些此时此地影响着他们的事情才是重要的。对他们而言，对历史的研究如果不能够影响到他们日常生活的话，就纯粹是在浪费时间。但对于无数其他个人和群体来说，研究历史可导致其所从事的活动的改善，这些活动所产生的影响会深入到未来，远远超越其日常生活。人类和环境的未来就有赖于这样一些类型的人，他们高瞻远瞩，从历史中获取有益的教训，以谋求为所有的人创造一个更为美好的未来。 |
2楼2006-04-06 15:59:33
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Issue "People work more productively in teams than individually. Teamwork requires cooperation, which motivates people much more than individual competition does." Sample Essay Teamwork as a whole can naturally produce an overall greater productivity through the concept of "synergy", where the total of the whole is greater than the sum of its individual parts. But the idea that people work more productively in teams rather than as individuals is going to vary greatly between the types of teams that are organized, the end reward or motivation for both the team and the individuals, as well as the individuals themselves. Regarding individuals, some people are born with the desire to succeed, no matter what the situation or task that they are facing. These people may evolve into the classic "Type A" personalities that work ferociously because they are driven by an internal fire that says they must always be doing something, whether individually or as part of a team. Other people may desire to be less socially involved or are very highly competitive with other people. For these people, their work is most productive as individuals, because the very idea of cooperating with other people limits their effectiveness and efficiency because they simply do not want to be a part of the team. Whether this mindset is innate or developed over time does not matter, it is merely the state of their being and neither motivation nor rewards can generate inside them the desire to work collectively as a team. Some people are highly motivated by social interaction and the desire to work with others towards a collective effort. Obviously these individuals are at their most productive when working as part of a team. Organizational behavioral studies have shown that Asian cultures are much more likely to develop this type of collective behavior as opposed to the more individualistic behavior associated with Western cultures. It could naturally be assumed then that there may be cultural values that can determine whether people are at their most productive individually or as part of a team. Another variable is the end reward that is involved with the task at hand. Will the rewards be greater if the team works together towards a common goal, or are the rewards more geared toward individual performance? To the extent that the individual is motivated by the end reward, obviously his or her performance inside of a team may be more or less productive with respect to the entire team, depending on how the performance is rewarded. Individual goals may interfere with the group performance. Synergies may not be achieved because the individuals are not working towards a whole "sum" but rather towards an individual reward. Productivity thus will vary for each person as a team member or as an individual depending on the degree to which that person is motivated by an individual or overall team reward. Finally, the degree of productivity of a person will depend upon the type of team that is organized. Is the group composed of equally contributing individuals? Does the group have an outstanding leader that can motivate both the individuals and the team as a whole? From a pure productivity standpoint, the presence or absence of a charismatic and exceptional leader can make all the difference whether a person would be more productive as a part of a team or as an individual. Personality types that work well together can prove to be much more productive as part of a team than as individuals, and vice versa. Fundamentally, measures of productivity depend greatly on the individuals themselves. The dilemma facing leaders in all areas of life is how to best assess these individuals to determine how to best harness their capabilities to reach their ultimate productive capabilities. Whether a person is more productive alone or while working in concert with others is one of the great challenges that leaders and managers must face to accomplish tasks effectively and efficiently. 观点陈述型作文/[题目] "当人们以团队的形式工作时，要比以孤军奋战的形式来得更加富有成效。团队的协同工作需要相互合作，它比个人竞争更能激励人们。" [范文正文] 总体而言，团队的协同工作自然能通过"增效作用"（Synergy）这一理念而带来更高程度的整体生产效率，因为在这里，整体大于个体相加之总和。然则，"当人们以团队的形式工作时，要比以孤军奋战的形式来得更加富有成效"这一观念注定会产生巨大差异，取决于所组织起来的团队的类别，团队与个人所能获得的终极回报或激励，以及个人本身。 关于个人，有些人天生就具有获取成功的欲望，无论他们所面临的情形或任务是什么。这些人会演变为工作狂这一经典的"A类"人格，因为受到一股内心的热火所驱使，这股热火时刻告诉他们必须不停地"有所事事"，无论是作为个人抑或是作为团队的一分子。另一些人则可能希望不必那么多地介入社会，或者他们倾向于与其他人激烈竞争。对这些人而言，作为个人，他们工作起来会最富有成效，因为由于他们根本就不想成为任何团队的一部分，与他人合作便会限制他们的效率。这一思想倾向是否与生俱有，还是随着时间的推移而形成，这都无关紧要。这仅仅只是他们的一种生存状态，无论是动机还是回报，都无法在其内心深处激发起作为一个团队集体工作的欲望。 有些人，由于社会互动以及与他人协作去实现某种集体努力的欲望，而具有极强的动机。显然，这些个人在作为团队的一部分进行工作时，他们便会处在其最富有成效的状态。组织行为学研究表明，亚洲文化更有可能形成此类集体性行为，与那种常和西方文化联系在一起的较为个人主义的行为构成对比。这样，人们自然会认为，某些文化价值观可以决定人们是否作为个人还是作为团队的一部分工作起来最富有成效。 |
3楼2006-04-06 16:00:16
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Topic The following is a letter to the editor of an environmental magazine "The decline in the numbers of amphibians worldwide clearly indicates the global pollution of water and air. Two studies of amphibians in Yosemite National Park in California confirm my conclusion. In 1915 there were seven species of amphibians in the park, and there were abundant numbers of each species. However, in 1992 there were only four species of amphibians observed in the park, and the numbers of each species were drastically reduced. The decline in Yosemite has been blamed on the introduction of trout into the park's waters, which began in 1920 (trout are known to eat amphibian eggs). But the introduction of trout cannot be the real reason for the Yosemite decline because it does not explain the worldwide decline." Sample Essay In this argument, the writer of the letter concludes that global pollution of water and air has caused a decline in the number of amphibians worldwide. To support his or her conclusion, the writer cites the results of two studies, seventy-five years apart, that purportedly show that the number of amphibians in one park in California, Yosemite National Park, have drastically declined. Additionally, the writer casts aside a given reason for the decline, stating that the introduction of trout to the park (who are known to eat amphibian eggs) does not explain the worldwide decline in the number of amphibians. This argument defies simple logic and suffers from several critical fallacies. First of all, the argument is based on only two studies in one specific part of the world, Yosemite National Park in California. It is impossible to pinpoint a worldwide theory for the decline of amphibians based on any number of studies in only one specific location in the world - the specific varieties of amphibians, geographical conditions and other location specific variables prohibit such a sweeping generalization. One very specific location cannot be used as a model for all other locations, even within one particular country, let alone the entire world. The writer provides no evidenced whatsoever that links the Yosemite study with any purported effects anywhere else in the global environment. Secondly, the two separate studies were done seventy-five years apart. There is no evidence that the two studies were conducted in a similar manner over the same duration of time or even over the same exact areas of Yosemite National Park, or that the exact same study methods were used. For example, perhaps the first study lasted over an entire year and was conducted by twenty-five experts in amphibious biology, resulting in the finding of seven species of amphibians in abundant numbers. By contrast, perhaps the second study was conducted over a period of one week by a lone high school student as a school science project. The writer offers no basis on which to compare the two studies, leaving it open as to whether the two are truly comparable in their breadth, scope and expertise. Finally, the writer notes that the decline in the amphibian population has been blamed on the introduction of trout into the park's waters in 1920, but then dismisses that argument on the purely specious basis that it does not explain the worldwide decline. This part of the argument blithely dismisses the very relevant fact that trout are known to eat amphibian eggs. This attempt to "prove a negative" is the last resort of those in search of some vain attempt to prove the truth of the matter that they are asserting. It is basically impossible to "prove a negative"; this is an attempt to shift the burden of proof back on to the nonbelievers of the argument. The global environmental situation and that of Yosemite National Park are not perfectly correlated, and the fact that the trout may very well be responsible for the decline cannot simply be dismissed without further proof. In summary, the writer fails to establish any causal relationship between global air and water pollution and the decline of amphibious life worldwide. The evidence presented is extremely weak at best and narrowly focuses on one tiny area of the globe, as well as putting forward as proof two studies about which almost nothing is known. For a stronger argument, the writer would need to directly put forth evidence associating air and water pollution with not only the decline at Yosemite but also throughout other areas of the world. (599 words) 参考译文 [题目] 下述文字摘自一封致某环保杂志编辑的信函： "全球两栖动物数量的减少明显标志着全球性水与大气的污染。对加利福尼亚州约塞米蒂国家公园内两栖动物所作的两项研究可证实我的这一结论。1915年公园内有七个物种的两栖动物，每一物种都拥有丰富的种群数量。然而，1992年，在公园内所能观察到的两栖动物物种仅为四类，且每一物种的种群数量已骤然下降。约塞米蒂公园动物数量减少被归咎于始于1920年的将鲑鱼引入公园水域的做法(众所周知，鲑鱼喜食两栖动物所产的卵)。但鲑鱼的引入不可能成为约塞米蒂公园动物数量减少的真正原因，因为它无法来解释全球范围内的动物数量减少。" [范文正文] 在本项论述中，信函作者的结论是，全球性水与大气污染已致使世界范围内两栖动物的数量减少。为了支持其论点，作者援引了两份时隔75年之久的研究结果，这两份结果据称可证明加利福尼亚州某一公园――即约塞米蒂国家公园――内两栖动物的数量锐减。此外，该作者撇开了动物数量减少的一个已知原因，陈述道，将鲑鱼引入公园(据称，鲑鱼喜食两栖动物所产的卵)这一做法不足以解释世界范围内两栖动物数量上的减少。这一论点有悖于简单的逻辑，犯有一系列关键性的逻辑谬误。 首先，该论点所依据的仅仅是世界上某一特定地点――即加利福尼亚州约塞米蒂国家公园――内的两份研究。围绕着两栖动物数量减少这一问题，如果仅以世界上一个特定的地点为样品，再多数量的研究也无法得出一种精确的、适用于全世界的理论。两栖动物的具体种类、地理状况以及其他因地点而特异的变数均不允许我们作出如此一概而论的总括。一个非常具体的地点不能用作一个代表所有其他地点的模型，即使在一个特定的国家内也不行，更不用说在整个世界范围内了。信函作者没有提供任何证据将约塞米蒂公园的研究与全球环境中任何其他一处地方的任何所宣称的效果联系起来。 其次，所提及的那两项互为独立的研究时隔75年之久。没有证据可证明这两项研究是在相同的时间跨度内以相似的方式进行的，或是在约塞米蒂公园完全相同的地点进行的，或所使用的研究方法绝然相同。例如，第一项研究可能持续了整整一年之久，且是由两栖动物生物学领域的二十五位专家共同进行的。结果是发现了七大种类数目众多的两栖动物。相反，第二项研究可能是一位高中生孤身一人所做的学校的一个科学课题，仅为期一个星期。信函作者没有提供将此两项研究进行比较的基础，从而使两项研究在其广度、范围以及专业水准方面的可比性不得而知。 最后，信函作者指出，两栖动物种群数量的减少，已被人归咎于1920年将鲑鱼引入公园水域这一做法，但紧接着又以该论据无法解释世界范围内动物数量减少这一似是而非的依据将该论据予以否认。信函作者论述中的这一部分漫不经心地将一个极为相关的事实弃置不顾，即众所周知，鲑鱼喜食两栖动物所产的卵。这种"prove a negative "的尝试往往是这样一类人所惯用的最后伎俩，他们竭力寻找某种徒劳的尝试，力图去证明他们所宣称的事物的真理。从根本上讲，"prove a negative"是不可能的。这样一种做法是试图将论证的负担重新转嫁给不相信该论据的人。全球的环境情形与约塞米蒂公园的情形并不绝然对应。鲑鱼极有可能造成了两栖动物数量减少这一事实在缺乏进一步证据的情况下是断不能轻易予以否认的。 概括而言，信函作者没能在全球空气和水污染与世界范围内两栖生命数量减少之间建立起任何因果关系。该作者所拿出的证据充其量也是极为苍白无力的，狭隘地将焦点集中在世界的一片极小的区域上，作为证据而援引的两项研究几乎不能说明任何问题。欲使其论点更具力度，信函作者尚需摆出直接的证据，将水和空气污染不仅仅与约塞米蒂公园的两栖动物数量减少联系起来，而且也与世界其他地方的动物数量减少联系起来。 |
4楼2006-04-06 16:00:53