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Titanium and Titanium Alloys
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Titanium and Titanium Alloys Edited by Dr. Christoph Leyens Dr. Manfred Peters DLR – German Aerospace Center Institute of Materials Research 51170 Köln Germany Foreword V List of Contributors XVII 1 Structure and Properties of Titanium and Titanium Alloys 1 M. Peters, J. Hemptenmacher, J. Kumpfert and C. Leyens 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Metallurgy of Titanium 4 1.2.1 Crystal Structure 4 1.2.2 Plastic Deformation 5 1.2.3 /-Transformation 6 1.2.4 Diffusion 8 1.3 The Classification of Titanium Alloys 9 1.4 Metallographic Preparation of the Microstructure 11 1.5 The Microstructure of Titanium Alloys 12 1.6 Property Profiles of the Titanium Alloy Classes 16 1.7 The Alloying Elements of Titanium 18 1.8 The Conventional Titanium Alloys 19 1.8.1 Alloys 19 1.8.2 Near- Alloys 22 1.8.3 + Alloys 22 1.8.4 Metastable Alloys 23 1.9 Textures in Titanium Alloys 23 1.10 Mechanical Properties of Titanium Alloys 25 1.10.1 Strength 27 1.10.2 Stiffness 27 1.10.3 Elevated Temperature Strength 30 1.10.4 Damage Tolerance and Fatigue 33 1.11 Referenced Literature and Further Reading 35 2 Beta Titanium Alloys 37 G. Terlinde and G. Fischer 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Metallurgy and Processing 39 2.3 Mechanical Properties 42 2.3.1 Tensile Properties 42 2.3.2 Fracture Toughness 44 2.3.3 Fatigue (HCF) 49 2.3.4 Fatigue Crack Propagation (FCP) 52 2.4 Applications 54 2.5 Referenced Literature and Further Reading 55 3 Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminides: Intermetallics with Improved Damage Tolerance 59 J. Kumpfert and C. Leyens 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Physical Metallurgy: Crystal Structures, Phase Equilibria, and Alloy Chemistry 62 3.3 Properties of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminides 64 3.3.1 Physical Properties 65 3.3.2 Microstructures 65 3.3.3 Mechanical Properties 68 3.3.3.1 Tensile Properties 68 3.3.3.2 Creep Behavior 71 3.3.3.3 Fatigue Strength, Crack Growth Behavior, and Fracture Toughness 72 3.4 Oxidation and Environmental Embrittlement 78 3.5 Concluding Remarks 84 3.6 Referenced Literature and Further Reading 85 4 -Titanium Aluminide Alloys: Alloy Design and Properties 89 F. Appel and M. Oehring 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Constitution of -Titanium Aluminide Alloys 90 4.3 Phase Transformations and Microstructure 93 4.4 Micromechanisms of Deformation 95 4.4.1 Slip and Twinning Systems 97 4.4.2 Dislocation Multiplication 100 4.4.3 Twin Nucleation 104 4.4.4 Glide Resistance and Dislocation Mobility 105 4.5 Mechanical Properties 112 4.5.1 Grain Refinement 112 4.5.2 Effects of Alloy Composition 114 4.5.3 Solid Solution Effects due to Nb Additions 115 4.5.4 Precipitation Hardening 116 4.5.6 Crack Propagation and Fracture Toughness 128 4.5.7 Fatigue Behavior 131 4.6 Basic Aspects of Processing 133 4.6.1 Manufacture of Ingots 133 4.6.2 Casting 135 4.6.3 Dynamic Recrystallization on Hot Working 136 4.6.4 Development of Hot Working Routes 139 4.7 Conclusions 145 4.8 Acknowledgments 146 4.9 Referenced Literature and Further Reading 146 5 Fatigue of Titanium Alloys 153 L. Wagner and J. K. Bigoney 5.1 Introduction 153 5.2 Influence of Microstructure 154 5.2.1 Commercially Pure Titanium, Alloys 154 5.2.2 Near- and + Alloys 157 5.2.3 Alloys 164 5.3 Influence of Crystallographic Texture on Fatigue Life 169 5.4 Influence of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life 171 5.5 Influence of Mechanical Surface Treatments 171 5.6 Influence of Thermomechanical Surface Treatments 175 5.6.1 Alloys 175 5.6.2 Near- and + Alloys 176 5.6.3 Alloys 177 5.7 Titanium Aluminides 178 5.8 Composite Materials 180 5.9 Summary 181 5.10 Referenced Literature and Further Reading 182 6 Oxidation and Protection of Titanium Alloys and Titanium Aluminides 187 C. Leyens 6.1 Introduction 187 6.2 Fundamentals of Oxidation of Metals 188 6.2.1 Thermodynamics of Oxidation 189 6.2.2 Oxidation Kinetics 191 6.2.2.1 Disorder Features in Oxides 192 6.2.2.2 Kinetics 194 6.2.3 Oxidation of Alloys 195 6.2.3.1 Selective Oxidation 196 6.2.3.2 Internal Oxidation 197 6.3 Oxidation Behavior of Titanium Alloys and Titanium Aluminides 198 6.3.1 Oxide Scale Formation 199 6.3.1.1 Ti-Al-O Phase Diagram 199 6.3.1.2 Oxide Scale Growth 201 ... 19.2.2 Seawater Corrosion 484 19.2.3 Corrosion in Oil and Gas Environments 485 19.2.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 485 19.2.5 Galvanic Corrosion 486 19.2.6 Fatigue 488 19.3 Fabrication 488 19.3.1 Welding 488 19.3.2 Cold Forming 489 19.3.3 Nitriding 490 19.4 Applications 491 19.4.1 Seawater Systems 491 19.4.2 Heat Exchangers 492 19.4.3 Hypochlorite Systems 493 19.4.4 Riser Pipes 493 19.4.5 Riser Taper Stress Joint 494 19.4.6 Sub-Sea Systems 494 19.5 Availability and Cost 494 19.5.1 Deliveries 494 19.5.2 Cost 495 19.6 Standards 495 19.7 Conclusion 496 19.8 Referenced Literature and Further Reading 496  截图01.png |
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