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2012英文专著《地质学基础Essentials of geology》
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2012英文专著《地质学基础Essentials of geology》 Table of contents : Cover......Page 1 ESSENTIALS OF GEOLOGY......Page 7 ©......Page 4 BRIEF CONTENTS......Page 8 CONTENTS......Page 10 PREFACE......Page 19 Acknowledgments......Page 23 1 An Introduction to Geology......Page 24 The Science of Geology......Page 26 Geology, People, and the Environment......Page 27 Catastrophism......Page 28 Geology Today......Page 29 The Magnitude of Geologic Time......Page 30 Relative Dating and the Geologic Time Scale......Page 31 Hypothesis......Page 32 Scientific Methods......Page 33 Do Glaciers Move? An Application of the Scientific Method......Page 34 Earth’s Spheres......Page 35 Hydrosphere......Page 36 Atmosphere......Page 37 Geosphere......Page 38 Earth System Science......Page 39 The Earth System......Page 40 The Rock Cycle: One of Earth’s Subsystems......Page 42 Origin of Planet Earth......Page 44 Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure......Page 46 Earth’s Crust......Page 47 The Face of Earth......Page 48 Major Features of the Ocean Basins......Page 49 A Brief Introduction to the Theory of Plate Tectonics......Page 52 Plate Boundaries......Page 53 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 57 KEY TERMS......Page 58 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 59 2 Matter and Minerals......Page 60 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks......Page 62 Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons......Page 64 Octet Rule......Page 65 Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred......Page 66 Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move......Page 67 Optical Properties......Page 68 Crystal Shape or Habit......Page 69 Mineral Strength......Page 70 Other Properties of Minerals......Page 72 Silicate Structures......Page 73 Joining Silicate Structures......Page 74 Common Silicate Minerals......Page 75 The Light Silicates......Page 77 The Dark Silicates......Page 78 Important Nonsilicate Minerals......Page 79 Mineral Resources......Page 80 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 83 GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT......Page 84 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 85 3 Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Activity......Page 86 The Nature of Magma......Page 88 Igneous Compositions......Page 89 Granitic (Felsic) Versus Basaltic (Mafic) Compositions......Page 90 Factors Affecting Crystal Size......Page 91 Types of Igneous Textures......Page 92 Felsic (Granitic) Igneous Rocks......Page 95 Mafic (Basaltic) Igneous Rocks......Page 98 Pyroclastic Rocks......Page 99 Generating Magma from Solid Rock......Page 100 How Magmas Evolve......Page 101 Bowen’s Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks......Page 102 Assimilation and Magma Mixing......Page 103 Intrusive Igneous Activity......Page 104 Nature of Intrusive Bodies......Page 105 Tablular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes and Sills......Page 106 Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, and Laccoliths......Page 107 Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes......Page 108 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 111 GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT......Page 112 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 113 4 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards......Page 114 Mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea......Page 116 Factors Affecting Viscosity......Page 117 Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?......Page 118 Lava Flows......Page 119 Gases......Page 120 Pyroclastic Materials......Page 122 Anatomy of a Volcano......Page 123 Shield Volcanoes......Page 124 Cinder Cones......Page 126 Composite Cones......Page 128 Nuée Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow......Page 129 Calderas......Page 132 Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus......Page 134 Lava Domes......Page 135 Volcanic Pipes and Necks......Page 136 Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity......Page 137 Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries......Page 140 Intraplate Volcanism......Page 141 Volcanic Hazards......Page 142 Monitoring Volcanic Activity......Page 143 KEY TERMS......Page 144 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 145 5 Weathering and Soils......Page 146 Earth’s External Processes......Page 148 Mechanical Weathering......Page 149 Salt Crystal Growth......Page 150 Sheeting......Page 151 Water and Carbonic Acid......Page 152 How Granite Weathers......Page 153 Spheroidal Weathering......Page 154 Rock Characteristics......Page 155 Differential Weathering......Page 156 Parent Material......Page 157 Time......Page 159 Plants and Animals......Page 160 The Soil Profile......Page 161 Classifying Soils......Page 162 Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest—A Case Study of Human Impact on Soil......Page 164 How Soil Is Eroded......Page 165 Rates of Erosion......Page 166 Sedimentation and Chemical Pollution......Page 167 Bauxite......Page 168 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 169 KEY TERMS......Page 170 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 171 6 Sedimentary Rocks......Page 172 Origins of Sedimentary Rock......Page 174 Shale......Page 176 Sandstone......Page 177 Conglomerate and Breccia......Page 179 Limestone......Page 180 Chert......Page 182 Evaporites......Page 183 Coal—An Organic Sedimentary Rock......Page 184 Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification......Page 185 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks......Page 186 Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments......Page 187 Sedimentary Structures......Page 190 Nonmetallic Mineral Resources from Sedimentary Rocks......Page 192 Energy Resources from Sedimentary Rocks......Page 193 Coal......Page 194 The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks......Page 195 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 196 GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT......Page 198 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 199 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks......Page 200 Heat as a Metamorphic Agent......Page 202 Confining Pressure and Differential Stress......Page 204 Metamorphic Textures......Page 205 Foliation......Page 206 Foliated Textures......Page 207 Other Metamorphic Textures......Page 208 Common Metamorphic Rocks......Page 209 Foliated Rocks......Page 210 Nonfoliated Rocks......Page 211 Contact or Thermal Metamorphism......Page 212 Hydrothermal Metamorphism......Page 213 Other Metamorphic Environments......Page 214 Textural Variations......Page 215 Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade......Page 216 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 217 GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT......Page 218 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 219 8 Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity......Page 220 Landslides as Natural Disasters......Page 222 The Role of Mass Wasting......Page 223 Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting......Page 224 Oversteepened Slopes......Page 225 Earthquakes as Triggers......Page 226 Landslides without Triggers?......Page 228 Type of Motion......Page 229 Rate of Movement......Page 230 Slump......Page 231 Rockslide......Page 232 Lahars......Page 233 Earthflow......Page 234 The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape......Page 235 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 236 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 237 9 Running Water......Page 238 Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 240 River Systems......Page 242 Streamflow......Page 243 Gradient and Channel Characteristics......Page 244 Changes Downstream......Page 245 Stream Erosion......Page 246 Transport of Sediment by Streams......Page 247 Stream Channels......Page 248 Alluvial Channels......Page 249 Base Level and Graded Streams......Page 251 Valley Widening......Page 252 Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces......Page 253 The Mississippi Delta......Page 254 Alluvial Fans......Page 255 Drainage Patterns......Page 256 Types of Floods......Page 257 Flood Control......Page 258 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 259 GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT......Page 260 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 261 10 Groundwater......Page 262 Importance of Groundwater......Page 264 Groundwater—A Basic Resource......Page 266 Variations in the Water Table......Page 267 Interaction between Groundwater and Streams......Page 268 How Groundwater Moves......Page 269 Measuring Groundwater Movement......Page 270 Wells......Page 271 Artesian Wells......Page 272 Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal......Page 274 Groundwater Contamination......Page 275 Hot Springs and Geysers......Page 276 Geothermal Energy......Page 278 Caverns......Page 279 Karst Topography......Page 280 KEY TERMS......Page 282 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 283 11 Glaciers and Glaciation......Page 284 Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles......Page 286 Ice Sheets......Page 287 What if the Ice Melted?......Page 288 Glacial Ice Formation......Page 289 Rates of Glacial Movement......Page 290 Budget of a Glacier......Page 291 Glacial Erosion......Page 293 Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion......Page 294 Glaciated Valleys......Page 295 Arêtes and Horns......Page 296 Roches Moutonnées......Page 297 Types of Glacial Drift......Page 298 Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles......Page 299 Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames......Page 301 Rivers Before and After the Ice Age......Page 302 Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes......Page 303 Glaciers of the Ice Age......Page 304 Plate Tectonics......Page 305 Variations in Earth’s Orbit......Page 306 Other Factors......Page 307 KEY TERMS......Page 308 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 309 12 Deserts and Wind......Page 310 Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands......Page 312 Middle-Latitude Deserts......Page 313 The Role of Water......Page 315 Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Mountainous Desert Landscape......Page 317 Bed Load......Page 319 Suspended Load......Page 320 Desert Pavement......Page 321 Ventifacts and Yardangs......Page 322 Sand Deposits......Page 323 Types of Sand Dunes......Page 324 Loess (Silt) Deposits......Page 327 KEY TERMS......Page 328 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 329 13 Shorelines......Page 330 The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface......Page 332 Basic Features......Page 333 Waves......Page 334 Circular Orbital Motion......Page 335 Waves in the Surf Zone......Page 336 Sand Movement on the Beach......Page 337 Wave Refraction......Page 338 Rip Currents......Page 339 Erosional Features......Page 340 Depositional Features......Page 341 Stabilizing the Shore......Page 343 Hard Stabilization......Page 344 Alternatives to Hard Stabilization......Page 346 Erosion Problems along U.S. Coasts......Page 347 Hurricanes—The Ultimate Coastal Hazard......Page 348 Profile of a Hurricane......Page 349 Hurricane Destruction......Page 350 Coastal Classification......Page 352 Submergent Coasts......Page 353 Causes of Tides......Page 354 Tidal Currents......Page 355 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 356 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 357 14 Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior......Page 358 What Is An Earthquake?......Page 360 Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes......Page 361 Aftershocks and Foreshocks......Page 362 Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves......Page 363 Locating the Source of An Earthquake......Page 366 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale......Page 367 Magnitude Scales......Page 368 Earthquake Belts and Plate Boundaries......Page 370 Destruction from Seismic Vibrations......Page 371 Landslides and Ground Subsidence......Page 372 Fire......Page 373 What is a Tsunami?......Page 374 Short-Range Predictions......Page 376 Long-Range Forecasts......Page 377 Earth’s Interior......Page 379 Earth’s Internal Structure......Page 380 KEY TERMS......Page 382 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 383 15 Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds......Page 384 From Continental Drift To Plate Tectonics......Page 386 Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle......Page 387 Evidence: Fossils Match across the Seas......Page 388 Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features......Page 389 Evidence: Ancient Climates......Page 390 The Great Debate......Page 391 Plate Tectonics......Page 392 Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading......Page 393 Continental Rifting......Page 395 Convergent Boundaries......Page 396 Oceanic–Continental Convergence......Page 397 Continental–Continental Convergence......Page 398 Transform Fault Boundaries......Page 400 Testing the Plate Tectonics Model......Page 402 Evidence: Hot Spots......Page 403 Evidence: Paleomagnetism......Page 404 Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading......Page 406 How Is Plate Motion Measured?......Page 408 Measuring Plate Motion from Space......Page 409 Plate–Mantle Convection......Page 410 Models of Plate–Mantle Convection......Page 411 Plate Tectonics in the Future......Page 412 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 413 GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT......Page 414 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 415 16 Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor......Page 416 Mapping the Seafloor......Page 418 Viewing the Ocean Floor from Space......Page 419 Provinces of the Ocean Floor......Page 420 Passive Continental Margins......Page 421 Active Continental Margins......Page 422 Deep-Ocean Trenches......Page 423 Explaining Coral Atolls—Darwin’s Hypothesis......Page 424 Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge......Page 426 Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?......Page 427 Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography......Page 428 How Does Oceanic Crust Form?......Page 429 Interactions between Seawater and Oceanic Crust......Page 430 Evolution of an Ocean Basin......Page 431 Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts......Page 433 Subducting Plates: The Demise of an Ocean Basin......Page 434 KEY TERMS......Page 436 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 437 17 Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building......Page 438 Factors that Affect Rock Strength......Page 440 Folds......Page 442 Faults......Page 445 Dip-Slip Faults......Page 446 Strike-Slip Faults......Page 447 Joints......Page 448 Mountain Building at Subduction Zones......Page 449 Mountain Building along Andean-type Margins......Page 450 Terranes and Mountain Building......Page 451 Continental Collisions......Page 452 The Himalayas......Page 453 The Appalachians......Page 454 Fault-Block Mountains......Page 455 Isostasy......Page 456 KEY TERMS......Page 458 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 459 18 Geologic Time......Page 460 Relative Dating—Key Principles......Page 462 Principle of Original Horizontality......Page 464 Inclusions......Page 465 Unconformities......Page 466 Using Relative Dating Principles......Page 467 Correlation of Rock Layers......Page 468 Types of Fossils......Page 470 Conditions Favoring Preservation......Page 471 Fossils and Correlation......Page 472 Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure......Page 473 Radioactivity......Page 474 Half-Life......Page 475 Dating with Carbon-14......Page 476 Importance of Radiometric Dating......Page 477 Using Tree Rings to Date and Study the Recent Past......Page 478 Terminology and the Geologic Time Scale......Page 479 Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale......Page 481 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 482 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 483 19 Earth’s Evolution through Geologic Time......Page 484 The Right Planet......Page 486 The Right Time......Page 487 Earth’s Early Evolution......Page 489 Oxygen in the Atmosphere......Page 491 Precambrian History: The Formation of Earth’s Continents......Page 492 Earth’s First Continents......Page 493 Supercontinents of the Precambrian......Page 495 Geologic History of the Phanerozoic: The Formation of Earth’s Modern Continents......Page 497 Mesozoic History......Page 498 Cenozoic History......Page 499 Earth’s First Life......Page 501 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes......Page 503 Early Paleozoic Life-Forms......Page 504 The Great Permian Extinction......Page 505 Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs......Page 507 Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates......Page 508 Demise of the Dinosaurs......Page 509 From Reptiles to Mammals......Page 511 Large Mammals and Extinction......Page 513 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 514 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 515 20 Global Climate Change......Page 516 Climate and Geology Are Linked......Page 518 The Climate System......Page 519 Seafloor Sediment—A Storehouse of Climate Data......Page 520 Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice......Page 521 Other Types of Proxy Data......Page 522 Composition of the Atmosphere......Page 523 Extent and Structure of the Atmosphere......Page 525 Energy from the Sun......Page 526 The Fate of Incoming Solar Energy......Page 527 The Greenhouse Effect......Page 528 Volcanic Activity and Climate Change......Page 529 Solar Variability and Climate......Page 532 Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Climate Change......Page 533 CO2 Levels Are Rising ......Page 534 The Atmosphere’s Response......Page 535 The Role of Trace Gases......Page 536 Types of Feedback Mechanisms......Page 538 How Aerosols Influence Climate......Page 539 Sea-Level Rise......Page 540 The Changing Arctic......Page 542 The Potential for “Surprises”......Page 544 THE CHAPTER IN REVIEW......Page 545 KEY TERMS......Page 546 COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 547 APPENDIX A: Metric and Engligh Units Compared......Page 549 APPENDIX B: Topographic Maps......Page 551 APPENDIX C: Landforms of the Conterminous United States......Page 555 B......Page 557 C......Page 558 D......Page 559 G......Page 560 I......Page 561 M......Page 562 P......Page 563 S......Page 565 W......Page 567 Z......Page 568 C......Page 569 D......Page 570 F......Page 571 G......Page 572 L......Page 573 M......Page 574 P......Page 575 S......Page 576 T......Page 577 Z......Page 578 |
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