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[资源] 2011Energy for a Sustainable World;From the Oil Age to a Sun-Powered Future

Contents
Preface XV
Acknowledgments XVII
Notation XIX
Part One Living on Spaceship Earth 1
1 The Energy Challenge 3
1.1 Our Spaceship Earth 3
1.2 An Unsustainable Growth in an Unequal World 5
1.2.1 Population Growth and Carrying Capacity 5
1.2.2 Economic Growth and Ecologic Degradation 6
1.2.3 Inequalities 6
1.3 Energy and Climate Crisis 8
1.4 Dealing with Change 8
1.5 Unavoidable Questions 9
2 Concepts and Misconcepts 11
2.1 The Elusive Defi nition of Energy 11
2.2 A Taste of Basic Principles 12
2.3 Converting Primary Energy into Useful Energy 13
2.4 It Takes Energy to Make Energy: the EROI 14
2.5 Embodied Energy 14
2.6 Energy Units and Conversions 16
2.7 The Immense Energy and Power Scales 16
2.8 Some Energy Key Parameters 17
2.9 Energy Pervasiveness Versus Energy Illiteracy 19
2.10 Key Numbers: an Abacus for Energy Literacy 20
3 Energy in History 25
3.1 Historia Magistra Vitae 25
3.2 Animal Power 26
3.3 Human Slaves and Energy Slaves 28
Energy for a Sustainable World: From the Oil Age to a Sun-Powered Future. Nicola Armaroli and
Vincenzo Balzani
© 2011 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 978-3-527-32540-5
VIII Contents
3.4 Waterwheels and Windwheels 28
3.5 From Wood to Coal 30
3.6 Steam-Powered Machines 31
3.7 Road Vehicles 32
3.8 Aircraft 33
3.8.1 Conventional Engines 33
3.8.2 Jet Engines 34
3.9 Electricity 35
3.9.1 Early Development 35
3.9.2 From Wayfarers to ICT 35
Part Two Fossil Fuels 39
4 Oil 41
4.1 What is Oil 41
4.2 Oil History, Exploration, Drilling, Production 42
4.2.1 History 42
4.2.2 Exploration 43
4.2.3 Drilling 43
4.2.4 Production 45
4.3 Oil Transportation 47
4.3.1 Pipelines 47
4.3.2 Tankers 48
4.4 Oil Refi ning 49
4.5 Oil Storage 50
4.6 Unconventional Oil 51
4.7 Petrochemicals 53
4.8 Oil as a Fuel 54
4.8.1 World Picture 54
4.8.2 US and Developed Countries 55
4.8.3 China and India 56
4.9 America’s Addiction to Oil 57
4.10 Oil Price 61
4.11 Oil Peak and Reserves 63
4.11.1 A Non-renewable Resource 63
4.11.2 Oil Reserves 63
4.11.3 Oil Peak 64
5 Natural Gas 69
5.1 What is Natural Gas and Where It Comes From 69
5.2 Gas Properties and Defi nitions 70
5.3 Brief Historical Notes on Gas Exploitation 71
5.4 Gas Production, Consumption, and Reserves 71
5.5 Liquefi ed Natural Gas (LNG) 73
5.6 Natural Gas Processing 75
Contents IX
5.7 Transport, Storage, and Distribution 76
5.7.1 Transport 76
5.7.2 Storage 78
5.7.3 Distribution 78
5.8 Gas Uses: Energy and Feedstock 79
5.8.1 Energy Use 79
5.8.2 Natural Gas as a Feedstock 80
5.9 Unconventional Gas 81
6 Coal 85
6.1 What is Coal 85
6.2 Coal Extraction 86
6.3 Coal Transportation and Industrial Uses 87
6.4 Coal Gasifi cation 88
6.5 Coal Production, Consumption, and Reserves 89
6.6 Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) 90
6.7 Integrated Gasifi cation Combined Cycle (IGCC) 93
7 Fossil Legacy 97
7.1 The Energy Dark Sides 97
7.1.1 Inequalities and Externalities 97
7.1.2 Monetizing Costs 98
7.1.3 Indirect Effects 98
7.2 Alteration of the Carbon Cycle by Fossil Fuel Combustion 99
7.2.1 Carbon Reservoirs and Fluxes 99
7.2.2 CO2 Rise and Its Measurement 100
7.2.3 The Greenhouse Effect 101
7.3 Anthropogenic Climate Change 102
7.3.1 The Path to Present Understanding 102
7.3.2 Melting of Ice Sheets 103
7.3.3 Interference with Ocean Currents 104
7.3.4 Ocean Acidifi cation 104
7.3.5 Permafrost Melting 105
7.3.6 Effects on Weather and Ecosystems 106
7.4 Air Pollution and Global Warming 106
7.4.1 Globalizing Smog 106
7.4.2 Aerosols and Black Carbon 107
7.4.3 Ozone, Ozone Depleting Substances and N2O 108
7.4.4 A Complicated Picture 108
7.5 Counterbalancing our Climate Infl uence 109
7.6 Putting a Limit to CO2 111
7.6.1 Regulatory Efforts to Curb Greenhouse Emissions 111
7.6.2 ppm or Teratons? 113
7.7 Air Pollution and Human Health 114
7.7.1 A Complex Atmospheric Mix 114
X Contents
7.7.2 NOx 115
7.7.3 Ozone 115
7.7.4 Particulate Matter 116
7.7.5 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 117
7.7.6 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and Acidic Precipitations 117
7.7.7 Heavy Metals 118
7.8 Land and Water Degradation 119
7.8.1 Oil Spills 119
7.8.2 Coal Combustion Residues (CCRs) 120
7.9 So, What? 122
Part Three Nuclear Energy 123
8 Nuclear Energy 125
8.1 Principles of Nuclear Fission and Fusion 125
8.1.1 Radioactivity, Mass and Energy 125
8.1.2 Structure of Matter 126
8.1.3 Nuclear Fission 128
8.1.4 Controlled and Uncontrolled Chain Fission Reactions 129
8.1.5 Nuclear Fusion 130
8.2 Power from Nuclear Fission 130
8.2.1 Past and Present 130
8.2.2 Nuclear Fuel 132
8.2.3 Uranium Supply 133
8.2.4 Nuclear Reactor Technologies 135
8.2.5 Cost and Time Issues 137
8.2.6 Proliferation 139
8.2.7 Safety and Security 140
8.2.8 Waste Management 141
8.2.9 Decommissioning and Dismantling 142
8.2.10 Other Limiting Factors 144
8.2.11 Perspectives 145
8.2.12 Nuclear Industry Renaissance? 147
8.3 Civilian Use of Nuclear Fusion? 148
8.3.1 A Diffi cult Problem 148
8.3.2 Magnetic Confi nement Approach 149
8.3.3 Inertial Confi nement Approach 150
8.3.4 Wishful Thinking 150
Part Four Renewable Energies 155
9 Solar Energy Basics 157
9.1 The Origin of Sunshine 157
Contents XI
9.2 Solar Radiation and Attenuation 159
9.3 Abundant, Fairly Distributed, Vital 161
9.4 Sun’s Limits: Dilution and Intermittency 162
9.5 The Conversion of Solar Energy: Heat, Fuels, Electricity 163
10 Solar Heat and Electricity 167
10.1 Passive Solar Harnessing in Buildings 167
10.2 Thermal Conversion: Unconcentrated Solar Flux 168
10.2.1 Solar Thermal Panels 168
10.2.1.1 Collectors 168
10.2.1.2 Water Management 169
10.2.1.3 Sun Exposure 170
10.2.2 Current Deployment and Trends of Solar Thermal Panels 170
10.2.3 Earth Energy Systems (EES) 172
10.2.4 Solar Thermoelectrics 173
10.3 Thermal Conversion: Concentrated Solar Flux 176
10.3.1 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) 176
10.3.2 Parabolic Trough Collectors 178
10.3.3 Solar Towers 180
10.3.4 Dish Collectors with Stirling Engines 181
10.3.5 Solar Updraft Towers (Chimneys) 181
10.3.6 Cost Considerations and Carbon Footprint of Solar Thermal
Electricity 182
10.3.7 Solar Thermochemical Conversion 183
10.4 The Birth and Rise of Photovoltaics 185
10.5 Inorganic Photovoltaics: Key Principles 186
10.6 Silicon Solar Cells 188
10.6.1 Manufacturing of Poly- and Single-crystalline Silicon Cells 189
10.6.2 Material Requirements, Life-cycle Impacts and Cost 190
10.6.3 Amorphous Thin Film Silicon Cells 191
10.7 Thin Film Solar Cells 192
10.8 Organic Solar Cells 193
10.9 Concentrated Photovoltaics and Other Innovative Concepts 196
10.10 Photovoltaics: Global Installation and Market Trends 197
10.11 Solar Energy: Sustainable and Affordable 198
11 Solar Fuels 203
11.1 Introduction 203
11.2 Natural Photosynthesis 204
11.2.1 A Complex Process 204
11.2.2 Natural Antenna Systems 205
11.2.3 Natural Reaction Centers 205
11.2.4 Effi ciency of Photosynthesis 208
11.3 Biomass and Biofuels 209
11.3.1 Biomass 209
XII Contents
11.3.2 Biofuels Today 209
11.3.3 Second-generation Biofuels 213
11.3.4 Biofuel Perspectives 214
11.4 Future Options for Transportation Fuels 215
11.5 Artifi cial Photosynthesis 216
11.5.1 The Need for Solar Fuels 216
11.5.2 Choosing the Right Type of Photoreaction 219
11.5.3 Choosing the Right Chemical Substrate 220
11.5.4 Components of an Artifi cial Photosynthetic System 222
11.5.5 Coupling Artifi cial Antenna and Reaction Center 222
11.5.6 The Problem of Multi-electron Redox Processes 224
11.5.7 Water Splitting by Semiconductor Photocatalysis 225
11.6 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells 227
11.7 The Solar Fuel Challenge 228
12 Other Renewables 231
12.1 Hydroelectric Energy 231
12.1.1 The Rise of Hydropower 231
12.1.2 Potential, Current Deployment, and Use 232
12.1.3 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Environmental Impact 233
12.1.4 Hydropower Future 234
12.2 Wind Energy 235
12.2.1 Brief Historical Notes 235
12.2.2 Wind Power Technology 235
12.2.3 The Huge Potential of Wind Power 238
12.2.4 Current Deployment and Trends 239
12.2.5 Environmental Impact 241
12.2.6 The Cost of Wind Power 242
12.3 Ocean Energies 242
12.3.1 Tidal Energy 242
12.3.2 Wave Energy 244
12.3.3 Ocean Thermal Energy 245
12.4 Geothermal Energy 246
12.4.1 The Geothermal Resource 246
12.4.2 Electricity Production 247
12.4.3 Heat for Direct Use 248
12.4.4 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Perspectives 249
12.4.5 The Next Frontier: Going Deeper 249
Part Five Energy Carriers 251
13 Electricity 253
13.1 Basic Concepts 253
13.2 Illumination 255
Contents XIII
13.3 Traditional Power Generation 256
13.3.1 Demand and Supply 256
13.3.2 Thermal Power Plants Based on Fossil Fuels 259
13.3.2.1 Coal-fi red Power Plants 259
13.3.2.2 Oil or Gas Power Plants 259
13.3.3 Hydroelectric Power Plants 260
13.3.4 Nuclear Power Plants 261
13.3.5 Contribution by Other Energy Sources 261
13.4 Traditional Electricity Grid 261
13.5 Power Generation from New Renewables 264
13.5.1 Intermittency and Fluctuation 264
13.5.2 Electricity from Wind 265
13.5.3 Electricity from Solar Energy Conversion 265
13.6 Energy Storage for Electricity Supply Networks 266
13.6.1 Role of Storage 266
13.6.2 Pumped Hydro 267
13.6.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) 268
13.6.4 Flywheels 268
13.6.5 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) 269
13.6.6 Electrostatic Energy Storage (Capacitors) 270
13.6.7 Batteries 270
13.6.7.1 Battery Requirements 270
13.6.8 Electrolytic Hydrogen 273
13.7 Plugging-in Transportation 273
13.7.1 Hybrid and Full Electric Vehicles 273
13.7.2 Infrastructure 275
13.8 Smart Grid 275
13.9 Towards an Electricity Powered World 277
14 Hydrogen 279
14.1 Introduction 279
14.2 Properties and Industrial Uses 280
14.3 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier: The Scale of the Task 281
14.4 Methods for Producing Hydrogen 282
14.4.1 “Clean Coal” Technology 282
14.4.2 Biomass 282
14.4.3 Water Electrolysis 283
14.4.3.1 General Concepts 283
14.4.3.2 Hydroelectric Power 284
14.4.3.3 Wind Electric Power 285
14.4.3.4 Solar Photovoltaic and Photoelectrochemical Electricity 285
14.4.3.5 Solar Thermal Electricity 285
14.4.4 Photoelectrochemical and Photochemical Water Splitting 286
14.4.5 Nuclear Energy 286
14.5 Hydrogen Storage 287
XIV Contents
14.5.1 A Diffi cult Problem 287
14.5.2 Liquid Hydrogen 288
14.5.3 Compressed Hydrogen 288
14.5.4 Metal Hydrides 288
14.5.5 Other Systems 289
14.6 Hydrogen Transportation and Distribution 290
14.6.1 Centralized Distribution 290
14.6.2 Decentralized Distribution 291
14.7 End Uses of Hydrogen Fuel 291
14.7.1 Fuel Cells: General Concepts 291
14.7.2 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Hydrogen Fuel Cells 292
14.7.3 Other Types of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 293
14.7.4 Reformed Methanol Fuel Cells 294
14.7.5 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 295
14.8 Hydrogen Powered Vehicles 296
14.9 Towards a Hydrogen Economy? 298
Part Six Scenarios for a Sustainable Future 301
15 The Challenge Ahead 303
15.1 Refl ection on the State of Our Planet: Now We Know 303
15.2 Energy Demand and Supply 304
15.3 Energy and the Quality of Life 305
15.3.1 A Focusing Illusion 305
15.3.2 Energy, Obesity, Iniquity 306
15.4 Saving the Climate 306
15.5 Phasing Out Fossil Fuels 307
15.6 Avoiding Nuclear Energy 307
15.7 Ecological Sustainability 308
15.7.1 Natural Capital 308
15.7.2 Learning to Say Enough 309
15.8 Why We Need to Develop Renewable Energies 310
15.9 Conclusion 312
Appendix – Did You Know That ... ? 315
References 321
Index 353
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