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剑桥2011年英文原版High Energy Astrophysics_3Ed
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Providing students with an in-depth account of the astrophysics of high energy phenomena in the Universe, the third edition of this well-established textbook is ideal for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate courses in high energy astrophysics. Building on the concepts and techniques taught in standard undergraduate courses, this textbook provides the astronomical and astrophysical background for students to explore more advanced topics. Special emphasis is given to the underlying physical principles of high energy astrophysics, helping students understand the essential physics. The third edition has been completely rewritten, consolidating the previous editions into one volume. It covers the most recent discoveries in areas such as gamma-ray bursts, ultra-high energy cosmic rays and ultra-high energy gamma rays. The topics have been rearranged and streamlined to make them more applicable to a wide range of different astrophysical problems. Malcolm S. Longair is Emeritus Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy and Director of Development at the Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge. He has held many senior positions in physics and astronomy, and has served on and chaired many national and international committees, boards and panels, working with both NASA and the European Space Agency. He has received much recognition for his work, including a CBE in the millennium honours list for his services to astronomy and cosmology. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Academia Lincei and the Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Arte e Literatura. Part I Astronomical background 1 High energy astrophysics – an introduction 3 1.1 High energy astrophysics and modern physics and astronomy 3 1.2 The sky in different astronomical wavebands 4 1.3 Optical waveband 3 × 1014 ν 1015 Hz; 1 μm λ 300 nm 5 1.4 Infrared waveband 3 × 1012 ν 3 × 1014 Hz; 100 λ 1 μm 9 1.5 Millimetre and submillimetre waveband 30 GHz ν 3 THz; 10 λ 0.1 mm 14 1.6 Radio waveband 3MHz ν 30 GHz; 100 m λ 1 cm 17 1.7 Ultraviolet waveband 1015 ν 3 × 1016 Hz; 300 λ 10 nm 21 1.8 X-ray waveband 3 × 1016 ν 3 × 1019 Hz; 10 λ 0.01 nm; 0.1 E 100 keV 22 1.9 γ -ray waveband ν 3 × 1019 Hz; λ 0.01 nm; E 100 keV 25 1.10 Cosmic ray astrophysics 27 1.11 Other non-electromagnetic astronomies 32 1.12 Concluding remarks 34 2 The stars and stellar evolution 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Basic observations 35 2.3 Stellar structure 39 2.4 The equations of energy generation and energy transport 43 2.5 The equations of stellar structure 47 2.6 The Sun as a star 50 2.7 Evolution of high and low mass stars 59 2.8 Stellar evolution on the colour–magnitude diagram 68 2.9 Mass loss 70 2.10 Conclusion 75 3 The galaxies 77 3.1 Introduction 77 3.2 The Hubble sequence 78 vii viii Contents 3.3 The red and blue sequences 80 3.4 Further correlations among the properties of galaxies 86 3.5 The masses of galaxies 89 3.6 The luminosity function of galaxies 95 4 Clusters of galaxies 99 4.1 The morphologies of rich clusters of galaxies 99 4.2 Clusters of galaxies and isothermal gas spheres 102 4.3 The Coma Cluster of galaxies 106 4.4 Mass distribution of hot gas and dark matter in clusters 109 4.5 Cooling flows in clusters of galaxies 110 4.6 The Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect in hot intracluster gas 114 4.7 Gravitational lensing by galaxies and clusters of galaxies 116 4.8 Dark matter in galaxies and clusters of galaxies 123 Part II Physical processes 5 Ionisation losses 131 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Ionisation losses – non-relativistic treatment 131 5.3 The relativistic case 136 5.4 Practical forms of the ionisation loss formulae 141 5.5 Ionisation losses of electrons 145 5.6 Nuclear emulsions, plastics and meteorites 146 5.7 Dynamical friction 151 6 Radiation of accelerated charged particles and bremsstrahlung of electrons 154 6.1 Introduction 154 6.2 The radiation of accelerated charged particles 154 6.3 Bremsstrahlung 163 6.4 Non-relativistic bremsstrahlung energy loss rate 166 6.5 Thermal bremsstrahlung 167 6.6 Relativistic bremsstrahlung 173 7 The dynamics of charged particles in magnetic fields 178 7.1 A uniform static magnetic field 178 7.2 A time-varying magnetic field 180 7.3 The scattering of charged particles by irregularities in the magnetic field 184 7.4 The scattering of high energy particles by Alfv′en and hydromagnetic waves 187 7.5 The diffusion-loss equation for high energy particles 189 8 Synchrotron radiation 193 8.1 The total energy loss rate 193 8.2 Non-relativistic gyroradiation and cyclotron radiation 195 ix Contents 8.3 The spectrum of synchrotron radiation – physical arguments 198 8.4 The spectrum of synchrotron radiation – a fuller version 202 8.5 The synchrotron radiation of a power-law distribution of electron energies 212 8.6 The polarisation of synchrotron radiation 214 8.7 Synchrotron self-absorption 217 8.8 Useful numerical results 222 8.9 The radio emission of the Galaxy 224 9 Interactions of high energy photons 228 9.1 Photoelectric absorption 228 9.2 Thomson and Compton scattering 231 9.3 Inverse Compton scattering 237 9.4 Comptonisation 243 9.5 The Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect 257 9.6 Synchrotron–self-Compton radiation 260 9.7 Cherenkov radiation 264 9.8 Electron–positron pair production 270 9.9 Electron–photon cascades, electromagnetic showers and the detection of ultra-high energy γ -rays 272 9.10 Electron–positron annihilation and positron production mechanisms 275 10 Nuclear interactions 279 10.1 Nuclear interactions and high energy astrophysics 279 10.2 Spallation cross-sections 282 10.3 Nuclear emission lines 287 10.4 Cosmic rays in the atmosphere 292 11 Aspects of plasma physics andmagnetohydrodynamics 298 11.1 Elementary concepts in plasma physics 298 11.2 Magnetic flux freezing 304 11.3 Shock waves 314 11.4 The Earth’s magnetosphere 319 11.5 Magnetic buoyancy 321 11.6 Reconnection of magnetic lines of force 323 Part III High energy astrophysics in our Galaxy 12 Interstellar gas andmagnetic fields 333 12.1 The interstellar medium in the life cycle of stars 333 12.2 Diagnostic tools – neutral interstellar gas 333 12.3 Ionised interstellar gas 340 12.4 Interstellar dust 347 12.5 An overall picture of the interstellar gas 353 x Contents 12.6 Star formation 361 12.7 The Galactic magnetic field 369 13 Dead stars 378 13.1 Supernovae 378 13.2 White dwarfs, neutron stars and the Chandrasekhar limit 394 13.3 White dwarfs 401 13.4 Neutron stars 401 13.5 The discovery of neutron stars 406 13.6 The galactic population of neutron stars 419 13.7 Thermal emission of neutron stars 421 13.8 Pulsar glitches 422 13.9 The pulsar magnetosphere 424 13.10 The radio and high energy emission of pulsars 427 13.11 Black holes 429 14 Accretion power in astrophysics 443 14.1 Introduction 443 14.2 Accretion–general considerations 443 14.3 Thin accretion discs 451 14.4 Thick discs and advective flows 461 14.5 Accretion in binary systems 464 14.6 Accreting binary systems 473 14.7 Black holes in X-ray binaries 486 14.8 Final thoughts 492 15 Cosmic rays 493 15.1 The energy spectra of cosmic ray protons and nuclei 493 15.2 The abundances of the elements in the cosmic rays 496 15.3 The isotropy and energy density of cosmic rays 502 15.4 Gamma ray observations of the Galaxy 503 15.5 The origin of the light elements in the cosmic rays 507 15.6 The confinement time of cosmic rays in the Galaxy and cosmic ray clocks 515 15.7 The confinement volume for cosmic rays 517 15.8 The Galactic halo 520 15.9 The highest energy cosmic rays and extensive air-showers 522 15.10 Observations of the highest energy cosmic rays 524 15.11 The isotropy of ultra-high energy cosmic rays 529 15.12 The Greisen–Kuzmin–Zatsepin (GKZ) cut-off 531 16 The origin of cosmic rays in our Galaxy 536 16.1 Introduction 536 16.2 Energy loss processes for high energy electrons 536 xi Contents 16.3 Diffusion-loss equation for high energy electrons 540 16.4 Supernova remnants as sources of high energy particles 545 16.5 The minimum energy requirements for synchrotron radiation 549 16.6 Supernova remnants as sources of high energy electrons 553 16.7 The evolution of supernova remnants 554 16.8 The adiabatic loss problem and the acceleration of high energy particles 556 17 The acceleration of high energy particles 561 17.1 General principles of acceleration 561 17.2 The acceleration of particles in solar flares 562 17.3 Fermi acceleration – original version 564 17.4 Diffusive shock acceleration in strong shock waves 568 17.5 Beyond the standard model 574 17.6 The highest energy cosmic rays 580 Part IV Extragalactic high energy astrophysics 18 Active galaxies 585 18.1 Introduction 585 18.2 Radio galaxies and high energy astrophysics 585 18.3 The quasars 586 18.4 Seyfert galaxies 592 18.5 Blazars, superluminal sources and γ -ray sources 596 18.6 Low Ionisation Nuclear Emission Regions – LINERS 598 18.7 Ultra-Luminous Infrared Galaxies ULIRGs 598 18.8 X-ray surveys of active galaxies 600 18.9 Unification schemes for active galaxies 602 19 Black holes in the nuclei of galaxies 610 19.1 The properties of black holes 610 19.2 Elementary considerations 611 19.3 Dynamical evidence for supermassive black holes in galactic nuclei 613 19.4 The Soltan argument 623 19.5 Black holes and spheroid masses 625 19.6 X-ray observations of fluorescence lines in active galactic nuclei 626 19.7 The growth of black holes in the nuclei of galaxies 633 20 The vicinity of the black hole 637 20.1 The prime ingredients of active galactic nuclei 637 20.2 The continuum spectrum 637 20.3 The emission line regions – the overall picture 640 20.4 The narrow-line regions – the example of Cygnus A 641 20.5 The broad-line regions and reverberation mapping 646 xii Contents 20.6 The alignment effect and shock excitation of emission line regions 653 20.7 Accretion discs about supermassive black holes 656 21 Extragalactic radio sources 661 21.1 Extended radio sources – Fanaroff–Riley types 661 21.2 The astrophysics of FR2 radio sources 666 21.3 The FR1 radio sources 675 21.4 The microquasars 676 21.5 Jet physics 678 22 Compact extragalactic sources and superluminalmotions 681 22.1 Compact radio sources 681 22.2 Superluminal motions 683 22.3 Relativistic beaming 686 22.4 The superluminal source population 693 22.5 Synchro-Compton radiation and the inverse Compton catastrophe 697 22.6 γ -ray sources in active galactic nuclei 699 22.7 γ -ray bursts 704 23 Cosmological aspects of high energy astrophysics 714 23.1 The cosmic evolution of galaxies and active galaxies 714 23.2 The essential theoretical tools 715 23.3 The evolution of non-thermal sources with cosmic epoch 720 23.4 The evolution of thermal sources with cosmic epoch 729 23.5 Mid- and far-infrared number counts 737 23.6 Submillimetre number counts 740 23.7 The global star-formation rate 743 23.8 The old red galaxies 746 23.9 Putting it all together 749 Appendix Astronomical conventions and nomenclature 753 A.1 Galactic coordinates and projections of the celestial sphere onto a plane 753 A.2 Distances in astronomy 755 A.3 Masses in astronomy 759 A.4 Flux densities, luminosities, magnitudes and colours 760 A.5 Diffraction-limited telescopes 764 A.6 Interferometry and synthesis imaging 771 A.7 The sensitivities of astronomical detectors 774 A.8 Units and relativistic notation 779 Bibliography 783 Name index 825 Object index 829 Index 831 |
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