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Analytical Chemistry ( 7E 2013 ) Gary D. Christian, Purnendu K. Dasgupta
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The 7 th Edition of Gary Christian's Analytical Chemistry focuses on more in-depth coverage and information about Quantitative Analysis (aka Analytical Chemistry) and related fields. The content builds upon previous editions with more enhanced content that deals with principles and techniques of quantitative analysis with more examples of analytical techniques drawn from areas such as clinical chemistry, life sciences, air and water pollution, and industrial analyses. Chapter 1 Analytical Objectives, or: What Analytical Chemists Do 1 1.1 What Is Analytical Science?, 2 1.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis: What Does Each Tell Us?, 3 1.3 Getting Started: The Analytical Process, 6 1.4 Validation of a Method--You Have to Prove It Works!, 15 1.5 Analyze Versus Determine--They Are Different, 16 1.6 Some Useful Websites, 16 Chapter 2 Basic Tools and Operations of Analytical Chemistry 21 2.1 The Laboratory Notebook--Your Critical Record, 22 2.2 Laboratory Materials and Reagents, 24 2.3 The Analytical Balance--The Indispensible Tool, 26 2.4 Volumetric Glassware--Also Indispensible, 31 2.5 Preparation of Standard Base Solutions, 43 2.6 Preparation of Standard Acid Solutions, 44 2.7 Other Apparatus--Handling and Treating Samples, 44 2.8 Igniting Precipitates--Gravimetric Analysis, 51 2.9 Obtaining the Sample--Is It Solid, Liquid, or Gas?, 52 2.10 Operations of Drying and Preparing a Solution of the Analyte, 53 2.11 Laboratory Safety, 60 Chapter 3 Statistics and Data Handling in Analytical Chemistry 65 3.1 Accuracy and Precision: There Is a Difference, 66 3.2 Determinate Errors--They Are Systematic, 67 3.3 Indeterminate Errors--They Are Random, 68 3.4 Significant Figures: How Many Numbers Do You Need?, 69 3.5 Rounding Off, 74 3.6 Ways of Expressing Accuracy, 75 3.7 Standard Deviation--The Most Important Statistic, 76 3.8 Propagation of Errors--Not Just Additive, 79 3.9 Significant Figures and Propagation of Error, 85 3.10 Control Charts, 87 3.11 The Confidence Limit--How Sure Are You?, 88 3.12 Tests of Significance--Is There a Difference?, 90 3.13 Rejection of a Result: The Q Test, 99 3.14 Statistics for Small Data Sets, 102 3.15 Linear Least Squares--How to Plot the Right Straight Line, 104 3.16 Correlation Coefficient and Coefficient of Determination, 108 3.17 Detection Limits--There Is No Such Thing as Zero, 109 3.18 Statistics of Sampling--How Many Samples, How Large?, 111 3.19 Powering a Study: Power Analysis, 114 3.20 Use of Spreadsheets in Analytical Chemistry, 116 3.21 Using Spreadsheets for Plotting Calibration Curves, 121 3.22 Slope, Intercept, and Coefficient of Determination, 122 3.23 LINEST for Additional Statistics, 123 3.24 Statistics Software Packages, 124 Chapter 4 Good Laboratory Practice: Quality Assurance and Method Validation 137 4.1 What Is Good Laboratory Practice?, 139 4.2 Validation of Analytical Methods, 139 4.3 Quality Assurance--Does the Method Still Work?, 146 4.4 Laboratory Accreditation, 150 4.5 Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures: 21 CFR, Part 11, 150 4.6 Some Official Organizations, 152 Chapter 5 Stoichiometric Calculations: The Workhorse of the Analyst 155 5.1 Review of the Fundamentals, 155 5.2 How Do We Express Concentrations of Solutions?, 158 5.3 Expressions of Analytical Results--So Many Ways, 166 5.4 Volumetric Analysis: How Do We Make Stoichiometric Calculations?, 173 5.5 Volumetric Calculations--Let's Use Molarity, 176 5.6 Titer--How to Make Rapid Routine Calculations, 187 5.7 Weight Relationships--You Need These for Gravimetric Calculations, 188 Chapter 6 General Concepts of Chemical Equilibrium 196 6.1 Chemical Reactions: The Rate Concept, 197 6.2 Types of Equilibria, 199 6.3 Gibbs Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant, 199 6.4 Le Chatelier's Principle, 200 6.5 Temperature Effects on Equilibrium Constants, 200 6.6 Pressure Effects on Equilibria, 201 6.7 Concentration Effects on Equilibria, 201 6.8 Catalysts, 201 6.9 Completeness of Reactions, 202 6.10 Equilibrium Constants for Dissociating or Combining Species--Weak Electrolytes and Precipitates, 202 6.11 Calculations Using Equilibrium Constants--How Much Is in Equilibrium?, 203 6.12 The Common Ion Effect--Shifting the Equilibrium, 211 6.13 Systematic Approach to Equilibrium Calculations--How to Solve Any Equilibrium Problem, 212 6.14 Heterogeneous Equilibria--Solids Don't Count, 219 6.15 Activity and Activity Coefficients--Concentration Is Not the Whole Story, 220 6.16 The Diverse Ion Effect: The Thermodynamic Equilibrium Constant and Activity Coefficients, 226 Chapter 7 Acid--Base Equilibria 230 7.1 The Early History of Acid--Base Concepts, 231 7.2 Acid--Base Theories--Not All Are Created Equal, 231 7.3 Acid--Base Equilibria in Water, 233 7.4 The pH Scale, 236 7.5 pH at Elevated Temperatures: Blood pH, 240 7.6 Weak Acids and Bases--What Is the pH?, 240 7.7 Salts of Weak Acids and Bases--They Aren't Neutral, 243 7.8 Buffers--Keeping the pH Constant (or Nearly So), 246 7.9 Polyprotic Acids and Their Salts, 253 7.10 Ladder Diagrams, 256 7.11 Fractions of Dissociating Species at a Given pH: alpha Values--How Much of Each Species?, 257 7.12 Salts of Polyprotic Acids--Acid, Base, or Both?, 264 7.13 Physiological Buffers--They Keep You Alive, 270 7.14 Buffers for Biological and Clinical Measurements, 271 7.15 Diverse Ion Effect on Acids and Bases: cKa and cKb --Salts Change the pH, 275 7.16 log C -- pH Diagrams, 275 7.17 Exact pH Calculators, 278 Chapter 8 Acid--Base Titrations 290 8.1 Strong Acid versus Strong Base--The Easy Titrations, 291 8.2 The Charge Balance Method - An Excel Exercise for the Titration of a Strong Acid and a Strong Base, 295 8.3 Detection of the End Point: Indicators, 298 8.4 Standard Acid and Base Solutions, 300 8.5 Weak Acid versus Strong Base--A Bit Less Straightforward, 300 8.6 Weak Base versus Strong Acid, 305 8.7 Titration of Sodium Carbonate--A Diprotic Base, 306 8.8 Using a Spreadsheet to Perform the Sodium Carbonate--HCl Titration, 308 8.9 Titration of Polyprotic Acids, 310 8.10 Mixtures of Acids or Bases, 313 8.11 Equivalence Points from Derivatives of a Titration Curve, 316 8.12 Titration of Amino Acids--They Are Acids and Bases, 320 8.13 Kjeldahl Analysis: Protein Determination, 321 8.14 Titrations Without Measuring Volumes, 324 Chapter 9 Complexometric Reactions and Titrations 335 9.1 Complexes and Formation Constants--How Stable Are Complexes?, 336 9.2 Chelates: EDTA--The Ultimate Titrating Agent for Metals, 338 9.3 Metal--EDTA Titration Curves, 344 9.4 Detection of the End Point: Indicators--They Are Also Chelating Agents, 348 9.5 Other Uses of Complexes, 350 9.6 Cumulative Formation Constants beta and Concentrations of Specific Species in Stepwise Formed Complexes, 350 Chapter 10 Gravimetric Analysis and Precipitation Equilibria 356 10.1 How to Perform a Successful Gravimetric Analysis, 357 10.2 Gravimetric Calculations--How Much Analyte Is There?, 364 10.3 Examples of Gravimetric Analysis, 368 10.4 Organic Precipitates, 369 10.5 Precipitation Equilibria: The Solubility Product, 370 10.6 Diverse Ion Effect on Solubility: K sp and Activity Coefficients, 376 Chapter 11 Precipitation Reactions and Titrations 382 11.1 Effect of Acidity on Solubility of Precipitates: Conditional Solubility Product, 383 11.2 Mass Balance Approach for Multiple Equilibria, 384 11.3 Effect of Complexation on Solubility: Conditional Solubility Product, 388 11.4 Precipitation Titrations, 390 Chapter 12 Electrochemical Cells and Electrode Potentials 400 12.1 What Are Redox Reactions?, 401 12.2 Electrochemical Cells--What Electroanalytical Chemists Use, 402 12.3 Nernst Equation--Effects of Concentrations on Potentials, 408 12.4 Formal Potential--Use It for Defined Nonstandard Solution Conditions, 412 12.5 Limitations of Electrode Potentials, 413 Chapter 13 Potentiometric Electrodes and Potentiometry 417 13.1 Metal Electrodes for Measuring the Metal's Cation, 418 13.2 Metal--Metal Salt Electrodes for Measuring the Salt's Anion, 419 13.3 Redox Electrodes--Inert Metals, 421 13.4 Voltaic Cells without LiquidJunction--For Maximum Accuracy, 422 13.5 Voltaic Cells with Liquid Junction--The Practical Kind, 423 13.6 Reference Electrodes: The Saturated Calomel Electrode, 426 13.7 Measurement of Potential, 428 13.8 Determination of Concentrations from Potential Measurements, 430 13.9 Residual Liquid-Junction Potential--It Should Be Minimized, 430 13.10 Accuracy of Direct Potentiometric Measurements--Voltage Error versus Activity Error, 431 13.11 Glass pH Electrode--Workhorse of Chemists, 432 13.12 Standard Buffers--Reference for pH Measurements, 437 13.13 Accuracy of pH Measurements, 439 13.14 Using the pH Meter--How Does It Work?, 440 13.15 pH Measurement of Blood--Temperature Is Important, 442 13.16 pH Measurements in Nonaqueous Solvents, 443 13.17 Ion-Selective Electrodes, 443 13.18 Professor's Favorite Example, 451 Chapter 14 Redox and Potentiometric Titrations 457 14.1 First: Balance the Reduction--Oxidation Reaction, 458 14.2 Calculation of the Equilibrium Constant of a Reaction--Needed to Calculate Equivalence Point Potentials, 458 14.3 Calculating Redox Titration Curves, 461 14.4 Visual Detection of the End Point, 466 14.5 Titrations Involving Iodine: Iodimetry and Iodometry, 468 14.6 Titrations with Other Oxidizing Agents, 473 14.7 Titrations with Other Reducing Agents, 474 14.8 Preparing the Solution--Getting the Analyte in the Right Oxidation State before Titration, 475 14.9 Potentiometric Titrations (Indirect Potentiometry), 477 Chapter 15 Voltammetry and Electrochemical Sensors 487 15.1 Voltammetry, 488 15.2 Amperometric Electrodes--Measurement of Oxygen, 493 15.3 Electrochemical Sensors: Chemically Modified Electrodes, 494 15.4 Ultramicroelectrodes, 496 15.5 Microfabicated Electrochemical Sensors, 496 15.6 Micro and Ultramicroelectrode Arrays, 497 Chapter 16 Spectrochemical Methods 499 16.1 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter, 500 16.2 Electronic Spectra and Molecular Structure, 507 16.3 Infrared Absorption and Molecular Structure, 512 16.4 Near-Infrared Spectrometry for Nondestructive Testing, 514 16.5 Spectral Databases--Identifying Unknowns, 516 16.6 Solvents for Spectrometry, 516 16.7 Quantitative Calculations, 517 16.8 Spectrometric Instrumentation, 527 16.9 Types of Instruments, 542 16.10 Array Spectrometers--Getting the Entire Spectrum at Once, 545 16.11 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometers, 546 16.12 Near-IR Instruments, 548 16.13 Spectrometric Error i... |
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